Engineered barriers are used in the containment of hazardous materials and are usually a composite of compacted clayey soil and a synthetic membrane. Containment elements such as landfill liners should be designed to control or prevent leachate migration or groundwater ingress. Engineering specifications for a compacted clay liner are based mainly in a hydraulic conductivity less than 10-9 m/s and the need for stability during construction and operation of the landfill. Sandbentonite mixtures are often used as a barrier material. The addition of relatively small amounts of bentonite (5-15%) can improve the performance of a granular material providing both a low permeability and an enhanced mechanical stability. However not all the possible compaction conditions produce a low permeability and mechanically stable material. Changes in water content after compaction can cause swelling or collapse depending on the stress and suction conditions before the water content change occurs. A laboratory investigation of the swelling-collapse behaviour of compacted mixtures of Sand-bentonite has been undertaken. Compaction and suction characteristics were established. The suction and volume change characteristics were investigated through a series of oedometer tests. The central part of the experimental programme focused on the detailed investigation of the processes of swelling and collapse during controlled wetting.To do this, a significant number of modifications were required to the existing apparatus. Fabric studies including Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy and Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry were also undertaken. Intrinsic behaviour and the relationship between suction and water content were comprehensively studied. A parametric study of the influence of bentonite content and sand grading was also undertaken. The results are presented and analysed. Recommendations for future research are made.

En el presente trabajo hemos realizado un estudio numérico de un modelo matemático de poblaciones estructuradas por la edad con difusión espacial. Estos modelos matemáticos están adquiriendo un enorme interés por su aplicabilidad al estudio de la dinámica de diferentes poblaciones como, por ejemplo, bacterias o células tumorales. La imposibilidad de resolver este tipo de modelos, excepto en situaciones muy simples, hace necesario el uso de métodos numéricos para la obtención de aproximaciones a su solución. Sin embargo, el número de trabajos dedicados a este fin es muy escaso en la literatura. En este estudio se pone de manifiesto el papel que tiene la difusión en estos modelos en diferentes situaciones. Para ello se propone un nuevo método numérico basado en la integración a lo largo de las curvas características en las variables tiempo-edad, y de elementos finitos para la variable espacial. Se considerará la situación, especialmente ardua, en la que el coeficiente de difusión depende de la función de densidad, además de añadir la actualmente interesante situación de que la edad máxima de los individuos sea finita.

The following study aimed to establish the social and political factors involved in the extreme poverty suffered by most of forcefully displaced persons in Colombia. To do so, a conscientious research was made and a survey was conducted. In addition, it was demonstrated that forced displacement is a strategy used by every violent actor of the internal conflict in Colombia, intended for impose their particular regimes based on violence and inequality. Moreover, was also established the relevance that in conflict has had the unfinished construction of the Colombian state, as well as the key role that has its differentiated presence throughout national territory and its co-opted reconfiguration by legal and illegal actors. Then, it was also shown that poverty goes beyond the economic aspect and involves, specifically for the case of IDPs (Internal Displaced Populations), phenomena such as uprooting, revictimization and social exclusion. Above, remarking the multidimensional character of poverty studied from the Capability Approach (CA) introduced by Amartya Sen and, the central importance that integral measures of it have to acquire a veridical picture of poverty suffered by victims of violence, specifically IDPs. Finally, a case study was carried out in the municipality with the highest number of IDPs in the country after the city of Bogotá, called Soacha. To do so, a survey applied to persons included in the most important program to tackle poverty in the country was conducted, and the role that local authorities have addressing this matter was analyzed; to conclude with a set of policy recommendations.

Colombian cities have been for over 60 years witnesses of the internal conflict that through time morphed into a heterogeneous war, causing the forced displacement of approximately 6.3 million people during the period between 1985 and 2015. The lack of instruments able to benefit this population, triggered the issuance of two statements of the Constitutional court forcing the national government to take action towards their repair and integration. With the aim of building sustainable and inclusive cities through social housing and at the same time reducing quantitative housing deficits, the national government set the goal of building 100.000 free housing solutions. Over 90.000 housing units were built across the national territory, keeping the promise made, but raising questions about the quality of social housing and the impacts these projects are having on Colombian cities built environment. This dissertation will analyse the degree to which this programme can provide an effective basis for creating inclusive housing processes in post-conflict Colombian cities. The first chapter will try to understand the meaning of the word inclusion, and will conclude with an applicable analytical framework that will set the basis and a set of lenses to understand and analyse how the projects are conceived, built and delivered. The second part will explain the characteristics of the Colombian conflict, its effects on the urbanization patterns of cities and the way in which housing policy has developed in parallel to it. Additionally, the third chapter will try to confront the analytical framework with the 100.000 free houses program. The expected outcome of this analysis is to open a discussion on the role of social housing and the challenges it faces in the task of transforming Colombian cities into inclusive centres in which to acquire a tangible peace.

Un diseño de una vivienda contemporánea que rescata el patrimonio cultura y arquitectónico en el Valle del Cauca, que dialoga con las condiciones del lugar (terreno, visuales, vientos y asoleamiento) y alberga espacialidades que promueven la vida social, donde compartir con la familia y amigos. La relación espacio exterior con el interior es de transición en la que existen distintos grados de intimidad los cuales se generan conforme a las condiciones socio culturales del lugar. Existiendo una zonificación de lo social, lo privado y los servicios. Rescata elementos característicos de la historia en las viviendas del valle del Cauca como aleros, patios, fuentes y materiales entre otros, genera una arquitectura propia del lugar, una vivienda confortable y fresca donde el juego de luz y sombras, el movimiento del agua, las visuales y los vientos son protagonistas. Este proyecto se plantea con itinerarios accesibles tanto verticales como horizontales Que hacen de este una vivienda digna, logra la mayor autonomía de sus residentes y visitantes. Este proyecto se realizó de la mano de los propietarios a manera de diseño participativo, esto garantiza que las distintas espacialidades respondan a sus necesidades, gustos y formas de vida, se genera un sentido de pertenecía y propiedad del espacio.

EPM is a group that consists of 12 Companies with more than 10000 employees with presence in Colombia, Central and South America, the Caribbean, México, United States and Spain. The Strategic Units are Energy (Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Commercialization of electricity and distribution of natural gas), Water and Sanitation. In addition EPM Group has Telecommunications businesses in another Company. Only in Colombia, EPM Group is the second biggest Company after ECOPETROL (Petroleum Company). EPM Group has been active in these four areas of public utilities and is currently implementing a number of projects to consolidate its leadership. Last year, EPM Group decided to work the Strategic Units of Energy, Water and Sanitation in an integrated form. The MSc. Thesis is developed in EPM Group, seeking alternatives for specific projects to growth in one field. It was defined that the “Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management” in the City of Medellin, Colombia such as interesting topic to improve after the integration of the Sanitation Company of Medellin into the Group. At the end of the MSc. thesis will be possible to present some alternatives for new projects and some evaluations considering environmental and energy, social, regulatory and economical factors. The steps of the MSc. Thesis are: - Presenting a general overview about MSW Management activities in Developing Countries. - Description of the current situation of MSW Management activities in Medellin, Colombia. - Presenting some opportunities of projects including a strategy for improving the MSW Management in Medellin, Colombia. - To evaluate some opportunities of projects considering the factors mentioned above.

Después de más de 20 años de éxito del sistema indexado de financiamiento de vivienda (UPAC) a través del cual la vivienda se convirtió en un sector líder como parte de una amplia estrategia de desarrollo diseñada para acelerar la urbanización e industrialización colombiana, el sistema sufrió modificaciones estructurales en donde pasó de estar únicamente atado a la inflación para pasar a indexarse a la tasa de interés también. Esto generó una fuerte alza en el costo real del financiamiento, desencadenando una crisis de pagos por parte de una alta proporción de usuarios que terminaron perdiendo su vivienda y desatando una crisis social. Esta situación paralizó el sector de la construcción, retrocediendo fuertemente en el proceso de crecimiento a través de este modelo. El gobierno intentó reparar el modelo volviendo al esquema original (atado únicamente a la inflación) y renovando el nombre del sistema con la iniciativa UVR. No obstante, este sistema no ha podido recuperar la capacidad motora que tuvo en sus comienzos.

Abstract: Pairs trading is a well-known and widely used strategy in the financial industry. Many academic papers have been published regarding to this topic, mainly applied over samples in the stock markets. This project attempted to analyze the application of a simple pairs trading rule in the Foreign Exchange Market, until now poorly approached. Therefore, our aim with this work was to address, through an empirical analysis, a market-neutral strategy that takes into account pairs of exchange rates that “move together” and exploits their plausible inefficiencies. Based on a co-integration model, we designed and tested the strategy, which surprisingly yielded valuable evidence of its potential scope. The sample employed for the development of this project included 9 of the most liquid currencies in the market, from 2010 until 2014, so it was possible to open and close positions at the right moment without delays. Resumen: El trading de pares es una estrategia bien conocida y ampliamente usada en la industria financiera. Muchos documentos académicos han sido publicados en relación a este tema, principalmente aplicado sobre muestras en el Mercado Accionario. Este proyecto buscó analizar la aplicación de una estrategia de trading de pares simple en el mercado de divisas, hasta ahora escasamente abordado. Por lo tanto, nuestra intención con este trabajo consistió en estudiar, a través de un análisis empírico, una estrategia de mercado neutral que toma pares de divisas que "se mueven juntas" y explota sus in-eficiencias plausibles. Basado en un modelo de cointegracion, se diseñó y probó la estrategia, que de manera sorprendente retornó evidencia valiosa de su alcance potencial. La muestra empleada para el desarrollo del proyecto incluyó nueve de las divisas más liquidas en el mercado, desde 2010 a 2014, para que fuese posible abrir y cerrar posiciones en el momento justo sin retrasos.

The question addressed in this paper was whether a government, in a regime considered democratic, can legitimately curtail civil rights as a means of protecting public order and the sovereignty of the state. The second part of the question is what should be given priority when there is a tension between fundamental rights and the state’s duty to maintain public order. The case analyzed was the antiterrorism law passed in the Colombian Congress in December 2003. This law was one of the main strategies developed by Alvaro Uribe’s government on its first presidency period to fight terrorism. The purpose was to create a legal strategy to combat terrorism and to guarantee public order and the sovereignty of the state, which were constantly undermined by illegal armed groups. This case study reveals a tension between the government’s duty to maintain public order and individual rights – particularly the right to freedom, the right to privacy, and the right to habeas corpus. The tension in the antiterrorism law appears when the government limits first-rank rights as a means to combat acts of terrorism. In a country that faces an internal armed conflict that weakens democracy, the approval of the antiterrorism law gives too much authority to the government and jeopardizes fundamental rights and freedoms. Throughout the paper, the autor try to prove that the constraints on fundamental rights in such a scenario could result in an undermining of the constitutional regime and in the loss of democratic legitimacy.

The series of studies accomplished and compiled in the present thesis had as a main objective the evaluation of the suitability of the Colombian Artemia franciscana for the aquaculture industry. Further, an evaluation of six newly reported populations (Salina Cero, Kangarú, Tayrona, Bahía Hondita, Pusheo and Warrego) is included. In addition to the description of biotypes, physicochemical parameters were recorded for each population studied. The habitats where Artemia has actually been registered in Colombia are of marine (thalassohaline) origin, thus they are sodium and chloride rich. The application of biometric tools to determine possible cyst and nauplius size differences among the different Colombian populations has been successful at further separating some of the most promising Artemia populations of potential aquaculture use. Further, cysts from Tayrona show the smallest size, followed by Galerazamba, Kangarú, Manaure, Salina Cero and Pozos Colorados. Galerazamba has the thinnest chorion, followed by Tayrona, Salina Cero, Manaure, Pozos Colorados and Kangarú. Additionally, nauplii from Galerazamba present a small size followed by Manaure, Salina Cero, Pozos Colorados and Tayrona. The determination of FAME from Manaure, Galerazamba, Salina Cero and Tayrona, suggested high EPAs but low DHAs. Hence, all four populations sampled are not considered suitable for marine aquaculture unless fortified with DHA rich emulsions, according to actual aquaculture quality standards. The cyst quality study, conducted on cysts batches, shows that cyst collection and processing techniques need to be improved in order for them to be suitable for the growing Colombian aquaculture industry. The outcome of the population distribution study, shows Manaure, Galerazamba and Salina Cero as having a stable mean population distribution with a balanced adult (38%, 36% and 19%, respectively) to juvenile+nauplius proportion (62%, 64% and 81%, respectively), as well as a stable female:male sex ratio (1:0.84, 1:0.88 and 1:0.84, respectively). In contrast, Tayrona exhibits an unstable population distribution with a high proportion of adults (82%) and low juvenile+nauplius (18%) and female:male ratio (0.88:1), thus recruitment of the juvenile and nauplius cohort to assure continuity of the species in this biotope is below sustainable levels. The results for the reproductive experiments (mean cyst production per female) do not entirely agree with the estimated cyst production potential at each site (field work results). These results difference is likely to be due to the interaction in the field among the three parameters (salinity, percent O2 saturation, and nitrate) on cyst production, particularly in the case of Salina Cero. Similarly, nitrate levels might have been affected by salinity. The latter may be supported, in part, by the observation of low nitrate levels during the peak of cyst production during this study. The genetic study on some Caribbean Artemia franciscana strains based on RAPDs generated two similar dendrograms with the same separation for the two Caribbean population clusters (middle Caribbean: Pozos Colorados, Tayrona, Manaure, Venezuela-PAV, Bonaire and Curaçao and lower Caribbean: Galerazamba and Salina Cero). Moreover, the clustering pattern obtained suggests that the populations in these two clusters are not genetically identical. Further, the splitting of the Artemia populations coincides with the existence of a geographical barrier in Colombia named the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Sierra Nevada might constitute a geographic barrier to shorebirds and hence Artemia cyst dispersal further south. The discriminant analysis based on morphometric characters, assigns male and female individuals into their proper population group (North American and Caribbean coast) to which they belong by only one discriminant function (100% confidence). However, male morphometric characters separate better population groups than the female characters, since all Colombian populations are correctly clustered in the Caribbean coast whereas the SFB population fall into the North American group, with no overlapping between both, as it happens with females. Similarly, for Artemia populations classified by their geographic origin, male and female individuals again separate the Colombian populations from the North American (SFB) populations. According to the analysis, Salina Cero male population is similar to its neighboring Galerazamba population and is also related to the other Colombian populations, and this is consistent with the previous findings using RAPDs and also likely to be explained by the existence of a geographic barrier (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta). Apparently, as deduced from the influence of lunar cycles and sampling time study the conglomerates formed by brine shrimp are asynchronous. Finally, it is recommended to conduct Artemia surveys preferably late in the evening or alternatively during early morning since Artemia tends to distribute more uniformly during the evening (dark and cool), when water temperature is lower, particularly in saltworks, where the evaporation basins are shallow.