Abstract: Stress is a physiological response that promotes maintenance of balance against harmful stim- uli. Unfortunately, chronic activation of stress systems facilitates the development of psychi- atric disorders. A stress-mediated hypercholinergic state could underlie this facilitation, as cholinergic mechanisms have been suggested to play a role in anxiety, depression, and sub- stance use disorder (SUD). Stimulation by stress hormones, urocortin (Ucn1) or corticotropin- releasing factor (CRF), of the CRF receptor type 1 (CRFR1) of acetylcholine-containing neurons of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) could be involved in modulation of cholinergic transmission during periods of stress hormone activation, which could play a role in psychiatric disorders as cholinergic LDT neurons project to, and control activity in, mood-, arousal- and SUD-controlling regions. The present study investigated for the first time the membrane effects and intracellular outcomes of CRFR1 activation by endogenous stress hormones on LDT neurons. Patch clamp recordings of immunohistochemically- identified cholinergic and non-cholinergic LDT neurons with concurrent calcium imaging were used to monitor cellular responses to CRFR1 stimulation with Ucn1 and CRF. Postsynaptically-mediated excitatory currents were elicited in LDT cholinergic neurons, accompanied by an enhancement in synaptic events. In addition, CRFR1 activation resulted in rises in intracellular calcium levels. CRFR1 stimulation recruited MAPK/ERK and SERCA-ATPase involved pathways. The data presented here provide the first evidence that Ucn1 and CRF exert pre and postsynaptic excitatory membrane actions on LDT cholinergic neurons that could underlie the hypercholinergic state associated with stress which could play a role in the heightened risk of psychiatric disorders associated with a chronic stress state. Resumen: El estrés es una respuesta fisiológica que promueve el mantenimiento del equilibrio frente a los estímulos dañinos. Desafortunadamente, la activación crónica de los sistemas de estrés facilita el desarrollo de trastornos psiquiátricos. Un estado hipercolinérgico mediado por estrés podría ser la base de esta facilitación, ya que se ha sugerido que los mecanismos colinérgicos desempeñan un papel en la ansiedad, la depresión y el trastorno por consumo de sustancias (TUS). La estimulación por hormonas del estrés, urocortina (Ucn1) o factor liberador de corticotropina (CRF), del receptor CRF tipo 1 (CRFR1) de neuronas que contienen acetilcolina del núcleo tegmental laterodorsal (LDT) podría estar involucrado en la modulación de la transmisión colinérgica durante los períodos. de activación de la hormona del estrés, que podría desempeñar un papel en los trastornos psiquiátricos, ya que las neuronas LDT colinérgicas proyectan y controlan la actividad en las regiones que controlan el estado de ánimo, la excitación y el SUD. El presente estudio investigó por primera vez los efectos de la membrana y los resultados intracelulares de la activación de CRFR1 por las hormonas del estrés endógenas en las neuronas LDT. Se utilizaron registros de pinza de parche de neuronas LDT colinérgicas y no colinérgicas identificadas inmunohistoquímicamente con imágenes de calcio concurrentes para controlar las respuestas celulares a la estimulación de CRFR1 con Ucn1 y CRF. Las corrientes excitadoras mediadas postsinápticamente se provocaron en las neuronas colinérgicas de LDT, acompañadas de una mejora en los eventos sinápticos. Además, la activación de CRFR1 dio como resultado aumentos en los niveles de calcio intracelular. La estimulación de CRFR1 reclutó las vías involucradas MAPK / ERK y SERCA-ATPasa. Los datos presentados aquí proporcionan la primera evidencia de que Ucn1 y CRF ejercen acciones de la membrana excitadora pre y postsináptica sobre las neuronas colinérgicas LDT que podrían ser la base del estado hipercolinérgico asociado con el estrés que podría desempeñar un papel en el mayor riesgo de trastornos psiquiátricos asociados con un estado de estrés crónico.

Abstract: This work seeks to understand what is the legal value of the soft law tax devices is issued by the OECD from a holistic perspective that contains international public law, local law, own conceptions of this international organization, and so on. Additionally, it is going to highlight the use of these international devices by the Spanish Supreme Court together with the way that these sentences impact in the legal certainty standard. Finally, it is going to point out if this way to apply soft law tools is analogous to the legal value explained previously. Resumen: El presente trabajo busca comprender cuál es el valor jurídico de los instrumentos tributarios de soft law emitidos por la OCDE en materia tributaria desde una visión holística que incluya percepciones de derecho internacional público, derecho interno, concepciones propias de la misma organización internacional, etc. Adicionalmente, se evidenciará el uso dado a estas herramientas internacionales por el Tribunal Supremo Español, así como el impacto que estos fallos pueden tener sobre el principio de seguridad jurídica. Finalmente, se puntualizará si esta forma de aplicación de los instrumentos de soft law es análoga a la valoración jurídica explicada previamente.

Abstract: We explore inflation dynamics in the period following the Great Recession for ten different countries for which we have data on the natural rate of unemployment and agents’ inflation expectations. We find that, out of the ten countries analyzed, there is evidence of missing disinflation for seven of them, and, furthermore, the traditional Phillips curve predicts several quarters with negative average inflation (deflation) for six of those that experienced missing disinflation episodes. While analyzing possible explanations within the framework of an expectations-augmented Phillips curve, we find that controlling for the unemployment gap, accounting for a possible flattening of the Phillips curve across time, and considering either households’ or professionals’ inflation forecasts as proxies for firms’ inflation expectations can account for the absence of strong disinflationary pressures since 2009. Resumen: Exploramos las dinámicas inflacionarias de diez países para los que tenemos datos sobre la tasa natural de desempleo y expectativas de inflación de los agentes económicos, en el período posterior a la Gran Recesión. Encontramos que, de los diez países analizados, hay evidencia de una ausencia de desinflación en siete de ellos y, además, la curva de Phillips tradicional predice varios trimestres con inflación promedio negativa (deflación) para seis de los que experimentaron episodios de desinflación ausente. Al analizar las posibles explicaciones en el marco de una curva de Phillips con expectativas aumentadas, encontramos que controlar por la brecha de desempleo, tomar en cuenta un posible aplanamiento de la curva de Phillips a lo largo del tiempo, y considerar los pronósticos de inflación de los hogares o los profesionales como sustitutos de las expectativas de inflación de las empresas pueden explicar la ausencia de fuertes presiones desinflacionarias desde 2009.

Abstract: Currently, the Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC, acronym in Spanish) are in peace negotiations. After more than 50 years of armed conflict, an ongoing process of reintegration of past demobilizations, and innumerable victims of conflict, peacebuilding becomes a key aspect for societal transformation and reconciliation. Although the transition from conflict to peace is difficult, education can play an important role to achieve this goal. The literature review suggests that there are links between education and peacebuilding. First, this relationship depends on society transformations that can result from inclusive education systems. Second, support education in peacebuilding could have positive effects for security, governance, and the economic and social sectors. Third, education can develop skills, shape non-violent behaviors, and tackle inequality issues. Fourth, peace education can offer a range of initiatives that contribute to peacebuilding. And fifth, there are challenges for education in peacebuilding, which are related to the different interpretation and approach from stakeholders and a lack of allocation of resources in social sectors. Due to the benefits of education and its importance after conflict, the Research Consortium on Education and Peacebuilding created the Theoretical Framework for Analyzing the Contribution of Education to Sustainable Peacebuilding: 4Rs in Conflict-Affected Contexts. The main argument of the 4Rs framework is that in order to achieve sustainable peacebuilding, education should address redistribution, recognition, representation and reconciliation. Under this premise, this study analyzes how education policies in Colombia from 2010 to 2014 tackle issues that contribute to sustainable peace.

Abstract: This research aimed to provide insight into the contribution of alternative online media in peacebuilding. Two alternative online media were chosen since they started creating narratives from the victim’s perspective, giving voice to communities typically neglected by society and mainstream media. Additionally, this research proposed an intersection between the concepts of participatory journalism and citizen media, from the reviewed theory. A qualitative study was developed to answer three research questions: How are social issues regarding peasants, indigenous people, and students represented in Colombian alternative online media Pacifista and Rutas del Conflicto in post-conflict times?, what are the motivations of Colombian alternative online media and their journalists when portraying marginalized in the media platforms?, and what are the challenges that alternative media in Colombia face when carrying out investigative journalism about these communities in post-conflict times? Data was collected using in-depth critical discourse analysis and semi structured interviews. For analysis, data collected from both methods was compared in order to strengthen the validity of the findings which were also enrolled in academic discussion with the theory and studies conducted in the field. The study found that alternative online media have helped in peacebuilding when portraying narratives about the communities and giving them visibility. The use of their journalistic work by experts on reparation and peace is also an evidence of their contribution. The enrollment of communities in editorial processes allowed the communities themselves to transform their self-image and identity. The intersection of theories proposed in this study grants sense to the evolution of citizen media in terms of appropriation of digital media. The limitations and implications of this study highlight the need for further research on the field.

Abstract: In this dissertation I examine the ways in which the community of Coquí, Colombia negotiate their identity. I argue that local forms of representation are re-created in forms of daily life activities such as farming, fishing and cooking. At the same time, those negotiations are connected to structures such as the black and indigenous territorial autonomy, the National Development Plan of Colombia (PND), and the presence of structural violence and narco-traffic. I focus on the use of local discourses as a mechanism to explain the territorial tensions with modernity, race, food, political agency and autonomy. I conclude by suggesting that the local territorial autonomy has permitted the consolidation of local food activism, unique ontological relations with nature, perspectives of black political activism, race and, sustainable economies that dialogue in particular ways with the current global capitalist model.

Abstract: Form-Based Code (FBC) is an urban design tool that contributes to building a highquality public realm for cities and particularly, neighbourhood communities. Its principles including mix-uses, physical form over separation of uses, encouraging walkability, and cycling as well as community engagement through charrettes (1). Therefore, it is recognised as an alternative planning tool that can offer an illustrated compilation of regulations and required design elements for specific development to achieve a long-term vision of the cities. Since 2000, in Bogota, Colombia, most of the neighbourhood’s units have been developed by gated neighbourhoods that show lack of relation with the public realm, promoting insecurity and spatial segregation. Indeed, in most cases, the Colombian planning system does not control the development gated enclaves (Blandy & Parsons, 2003) being the housing type preferred by almost 2.7 million of citizens. Even though some regulations have been adopted in the land management plan (POT), partial plans (PP) and other planning tools, they are still wide and scarce to mitigate the unsustainable growth of gated enclaves. Through a comparative analysis, this dissertation address at studying to what extend the existing local regulations and guidelines for developing gated communities agree with the FBC’s principles. The research concluded with some recommendations and actions for applying the FBC in gated communities in Bogota that could be applied in other towns with similar urban conditions. (1) Design Charrette is an intensive, hands-on workshop that brings people from different disciplines and backgrounds together with members of the community to explore design options for a particular area. Resumen: Form-Based Code (FBC) es una herramienta de diseño urbano que contribuye a construir un ámbito público de alta calidad para las ciudades y, en particular, las comunidades barriales. Sus principios incluyen: usos mixtos, la forma física sobre la separación de usos, fomento de la transitabilidad y el ciclismo, así como la participación de la comunidad a través de charrettes (1). Por tanto, se reconoce como una herramienta de planificación alternativa que puede ofrecer una recopilación ilustrada de normativas y elementos de diseño requeridos para el desarrollo específico de una visión a largo plazo de las ciudades. Desde el año 2000, en Bogotá, Colombia, la mayoría de las unidades del barrio han sido desarrolladas a través de conjuntos cerrados que muestran falta de relación con el ámbito público, promoción de inseguridad y segregación espacial. De hecho, en la mayoría de los casos, el sistema de planificación colombiano no controla el desarrollo de enclaves cerrados (Blandy & Parsons, 2003), siendo este, el tipo de vivienda preferido por casi 2,7 millones de ciudadanos. Aunque se han adoptado algunas regulaciones en el plan de ordenamiento territorial (POT), planes parciales (PP) y otras herramientas de planificación, aún son amplias y escasas para mitigar el crecimiento insostenible de los enclaves cerrados. A través de un análisis comparativo, esta disertación aborda el estudio de hasta qué punto las regulaciones y pautas locales existentes para el desarrollo de comunidades cerradas están de acuerdo con los principios de las Formas Basadas en Códigos (FBC). La investigación concluye con algunas recomendaciones y acciones para la aplicación de los FBC, sobre los conjuntos cerrados de Bogotá, que bien podrían también aplicarse en otros lugares con similares condiciones urbanas. (1) Design Charrette es un taller práctico intensivo que reúne a personas de diferentes disciplinas y orígenes con miembros de la comunidad para explorar opciones de diseño para un área en particular.

Abstract: The development of new technologies in genetic research and the increasing understanding of the human genome has led, in the last decades, to an increase in the use of human tissue in the fields of research, diagnosis and medical treatment. Several legal models have been proposed for the protection of the rights of the original source of the tissue and for the circulation and use of this material for research. The main aim of this thesis is to explore the so-called contractual model. According to this model, the conclusion of contracts on human tissue could protect better than any other mechanism the rights and interests of the parties involved in the circulation of tissue for research. For this purpose, the objective of this thesis is to answer the following research question: what are the limits to the validity of contracts on human tissue in the Italian, English and EU legal system? In order to establish such limits, this study focuses on the following possible cases of contractual relations for the transfer and use of human tissue: a) Gratuitous contracts between the first transferor and the first recipient of human tissue; b) Non-gratuitous contracts between the first transferor and the first recipient; c) Contracts between the first and subsequent recipients. The research was carried out using two different legal methods. Firstly, the doctrinal research method was used to investigate the scope and content of the multi-level sources of law (national, supranational and international) that constitute the legal framework for the determination of the limits to the validity of contracts on human tissue. Secondly, the functional approach was used for the comparative analysis of the national legal systems of Italy and England. The research concludes that it is desirable to regulate, via contract law legislative provisions, the tissue transfers for the purposes of research. This regulation should place on the first recipient a clear set of information duties towards the first transferor of the tissue. In addition, such regulation should include mandatory and default rules for contracts between the first transferor and first recipient. The interaction between mandatory norms and default rules could achieve a strengthened protection of the autonomy of the first transferor of tissue. This research also demonstrates that the conclusion of sales and other non-gratuitous contracts on human tissue between first transferor and the first recipient should not be prohibited.

Abstract: Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are small chains of amino acids with the ability to cause bacterial death. AMPs are usually amphiphilic but diverse in charge and structure. The mechanism or mechanisms that AMPs implement to kill bacteria are still under discussion. Studies in model membranes have widely demonstrated the capacity of AMPs to interact with and disrupt the bacterial cell membrane. There are however, good reasons to suspect that AMP interactions with nonmembrane components of bacteria are important. For instance, there is an enormous discrepancy between the peptide to lipid molar ratio (P:L) necessary to generate membrane disruption in model systems (1:100), and the P:L necessary to stop bacterial growth, i.e. the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) (10-100:1). One potential explanation for this discrepancy is that AMPs may interact with non-membrane components of the bacterial cell envelope. The peptidoglycan (PGN) layer is one of the primary non-membrane components of Gram-positive bacterial cell envelopes and is responsible for cell shape and stability. Currently, there is an open discussion about whether PGN can entrap AMPs and prevent them from reaching the cell membrane or, instead promote the accumulation of AMPs on the cell membrane. The primary experimental approach employed in this thesis was 2H NMR spectroscopy of intact bacteria with 2H-labeled membranes. Specifically, since the quadrupolar splittings obtained from the spectra are proportional to the order parameter of the lipid acyl chains, the spectra reflect the structure and dynamics of the membrane. In particular, 2H NMR spectroscopy allows us to characterize the disruption of lipid bilayers caused by AMPs. In this study, different methods to grow 2H-membrane-enriched bacteria were optimized to obtain 2H NMR spectra of E. coli LA8, E. coli JM109 and B. subtilis. Additionally, 2H NMR was used to observe the level of disruption of the cell membrane of B. subtilis caused by the presence of different AMPs, MSI-78 and BP100. Both MSI-78 and BP100 caused the same level of membrane disruption at similar concentrations. Separately, comparison of the 2H NMR spectra of B. subtilis with intact and compromised PGN layers showed no differences. The lack of change in the spectra of PGN-compromised and PGN intact bacteria indicates that there is no change in the dynamics or structure of the lipid bilayer even with a weakened PGN layer. Finally, the disruption caused by MSI-78 and BP100 was measured in B. subtilis with a compromised PGN layer. The results indicate that there is no change in the level of membrane disruption caused by MSI-78 and BP100 when the PGN layer is partially removed.

Abstract: Anodic porous alumina (AAO) are used in nanoscience and nanotechnology. The heat treatments during fabrication, characterization, or device performance, can change their thermal properties. It was found that the thermal conductivity of AAO is highly dependent on the temperature at which the sample was exposed. Different AAO templates produced in the most common electrolytes: sulfuric, oxalic, and phosphoric acids. They were heated from RT up to 1100 °C and were analyzed at RT using 3ω-Scanning Thermal Microscopy (3ω-SThM). It was concluded that at low temperatures of heat treatment, below 100 °C, the AAOs lose water, which explains the reduction of their thermal conductivity. The minimum value of thermal conductivity was found for AAO samples prepared in sulfuric acid and heated at 100 °C (0.78 ± 0.19 W m−1 K−1), which corresponds to a 50% reduction from the original value. It has also been found that for AAO annealed above 950 °C, the variations in the thermal conductivity are mainly related to phase transitions from amorphous to crystalline alumina and gas evolution of CO2, or SO2 and SO, depending on the electrolyte used during the anodization. The thermal conductivity values of the AAO can reach values as high as 4.82 ± 0.36 W m−1 K−1 for AAO samples prepared in oxalic acid and heated up to 1300 °C. The understanding of the changes in their thermal conductivity can explain the different values found in the literature for AAOs. Resumen: Aluminas anódicas porosas (AAO) son usadas en nanociencia y nanotecnología. Los tratamientos de calor durante la fabricación, caracterización o desarrollo de dispositivos, pueden cambiar sus propiedades térmicas. Se ha encontrado que la conductividad térmica de las AAO es altamente dependiente de la temperatura a la cual la muestra ha sido expuesta. Diferentes plantillas de AAO fueron producidas en los electrolitos más comunes: ácidos sulfúrico, oxálico y fosfórico y calentadas desde temperatura ambiente hasta 1100 °C; fueron analizadas a temperatura ambiente usando la técnica 3ω-Microscopía Térmica de Barrido (3ω-SThM). Se concluye que, en tratamientos a baja temperatura, por debajo de 100 ºC, las AAO pierden agua, y esto explica la reducción de la conductividad térmica. El valor mínimo de conductividad térmica encontrado es para las muestras de AAO preparadas en ácido súlfurico y calentadas a 100 ºC (0.78 ± 0.19 W m−1 K−1), el cual corresponde a una reducción del 50% del valor original. También se ha encontrado para AAO calentadas sobre 950 ºC, variaciones en la conductividad térmica que son principalmente relacionadas con transiciones de fase desde amorfo hasta alumina cristalina y evolución de los gases CO2, SO2 y SO, dependiendo del electrolito usado durante la anodización. Los valores de conductividad térmica de AAOs pueden ser tan altos como 4.82 ± 0.36 W m−1 K−1 para muestras preparadas en ácido oxálico y calentadas hasta 1300 °C. El entendimiento de los cambios en conductividad puede explicar porque en la literatura se encuentran diferentes valores para la conductividad térmica de las AAOs.