The research on electrochemical carbon molecule oxidation started in the past years as new electrochemistries were researched for new fuel cells systems and batteries that may line up as backup energy supply and storage systems in off-grid and on-grid microgrids, as modeled by our group at the University of Twente [1-3]. By lining up these two disciplines we hope to support the bridge between new electrochemical systems on one side, (pilot) production with partner companies, prediction, and validation of systems upon implementation in microgrids by our group. The electrochemical oxidation of glycerol in alkaline aqueous solution has been studied on gold and gold coated metals (Zn-Au and Cu-Au) by voltammetry and EIS (Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) for possible use in a new fuel cell as an outlet for the excess glycerol that is produced in the biodiesel industry. The observations show that the gold surface may change upon cycling by cyclic voltammetry. Besides, the current density shows non-linear behavior with the square root of the scan rate, implying that the reaction is not totally controlled by diffusion. EIS analysis using the EQUIVCRT software revealed that one out of twenty tested equivalent circuits fitted the data well at potentials of -0.05 V,- 0.15 V and -0.25 V vs. Ag/AgCl, identifying resistors and a Warburg element in parallel with the double layer capacitance, the elements are possibly related to the presence of double layers associated with hydroxypyrovate and oxalate ions. The results are consistent with the low-frequency error fitting analysis (10-4), AC Simulink-Matlab fitting responds and the Kronig-Kramers transform test. The tested Zn-Au and Cu-Au electrodes show similar voltammetry behavior as the gold electrode, as witnessed by the results of cycle analysis and the scan rate analysis. The discharge chronoamperometry test further shows that the Zn-Au electrode and Cu-Au have higher current densities than the gold electrode at a potential of -0.25 V vs. Ag/AgCl (5 mA cm-2, 4.5 mA cm-2, and 3 mA cm-2 respectively).

The research topic was about the responses of Gammarus pulex to chemical signals released from the predator fish, Leuciscus idus. The aim of this study is to compare the responses of individuals of G.pulex when these individuals are alone and in group. This research was done because there was lack of information about single and group responses of G.pulex to chemical signals released from predators. Three experiments (a pre-experiment, main experiment and a side experiment) were performed to compare the single and group responses of G.pulex to chemical stimuli. The first two experiments consisted in three treatments named Normal, Control and Fish water. The normal and control treatments were made by Dutch Standard Water whereas the fish water contained chemical cues of the predatory fish, L.idus. The side experiment included ammonium as a fourth treatment. The reason of the ammonium treatment was to compare the responses of G.pulex to ammonium and fish water to see if the responses of G.pulex could be stress responses to the ammonium rather than the fish cue contained in the fish water. In general, individuals and groups of G.pulex showed the lowest values of activity under the fish water treatment. In singles and groups of G.pulex, there were significant differences between the control and fish water and between the normal and fish water treatments indicating that the singles and groups respond to the fish water, which was the predator chemical source. Also, there were significant differences between the ammonium and fish water treatments suggesting that G.pulex distinguished between these two chemical sources. Generally, G.pulex tended to reduce activity in the presence of fish water, however, not all the individuals of G.pulex reduced the activity in the same manner, which suggested that there were variations in individual responses to the predator chemical source.

Abstract: Aspergillus fumigatus is a fungus very well known in medicine because is responsible of invasive aspergillosis (IA) in immunocompromised patients. The use of antifungals for this disease, in particular azoles, had given a good result until the appearance of the first azole-resistant aspergillosis in 1997. Since then more cases with different mechanisms of acquiring the resistance have appeared and have been studied. The pan-azole cases also exist and represent a challenge for them to be successfully treated without mortality involved. It has always been thought is the cycle only included the environment and the human being. But one important question remains, is if animals play a role in the cycle of transmission. This thesis is a beginning step, in the research of isolates of Azole-Resistant A. fumigatus present in the respiratory tissue of the most affected species in Veterinary Medicine, birds. Respiratory tissues from poultry (Gallus Gallus Domesticus) obtained in a slaughter house in the Utrecht province and a common seagull (Larus Canus) from the North-Holland province in the Netherlands were macroscopically analysed, manipulated in three diverse ways and then cultured at several temperatures. 19 A. fumigatus isolates were obtained from poultry and 1 from the seagull. All isolates were put through a resistant experiment. Along with resistant and susceptible strains obtained by Jianhua Zhang, all isolates were cultivated in Malt Agar, Malt Agar with itraconazole at 4 mg/ml and Malt Agar with Tebuconazole at 4mg/ml. The diameter of the colony was measured several days later, with at least three consecutive measurements done. They all presented a higher response to Tebuconazole than to Itraconazole, being none of them fully resistant. Further research can address molecular mechanisms involved in this kind of response. Resumen: Aspergillus fumigatus es un hongo muy conocido en la medicina porque es responsable de la aspergilosis invasiva (AI) en pacientes inmunocomprometidos. El uso de antifúngicos para esta enfermedad, en particular los azoles, había dado un buen resultado hasta la aparición de la primera aspergilosis resistente a azol en 1997. Desde entonces, han aparecido y se han estudiado más casos con diferentes mecanismos de adquisición de la resistencia. Los casos de resistencia a varios azoles también existen y representan un desafío para que puedan ser tratados con éxito sin la mortalidad involucrada. Siempre se ha pensado que el ciclo solo incluía el medio ambiente y el ser humano. Pero una pregunta importante que queda es si los animales juegan un papel en el ciclo de transmisión. Esta tesis es un paso inicial, en la investigación de aislamientos de A. fumigatus resistentes a Azoles presentes en el tejido respiratorio de las especies más afectadas en Medicina Veterinaria, las aves. Los tejidos respiratorios des aves de corral (Gallus Gallus Domesticus) obtenidos en un matadero en la provincia de Utrecht y una gaviota común (Larus Canus) de la provincia de Holanda Septentrional en los Países Bajos se analizaron macroscópicamente, se manipularon de tres maneras diferentes y luego se cultivaron a varias temperaturas. En total 19 aislamientos de A. fumigatus se obtuvieron de aves de corral y 1 de la gaviota. Todos los aislamientos se sometieron a un experimento resistente. Junto con las cepas resistentes y susceptibles obtenidas por Jianhua Zhang, todos los aislamientos se cultivaron en agar de malta, agar de malta con itraconazol a 4 mg / ml y agar de malta con tebuconazol a 4 mg / ml. El diámetro de la colonia se midió varios días después, con al menos tres mediciones consecutivas. Todos presentaron una respuesta más alta al tebuconazol que al itraconazol, ninguno de ellos era totalmente resistente. Investigación adicional puede abordar los mecanismos moleculares implicados en este tipo de respuesta.

Abstract: Different contract types means different incentives, burdens and relationships. The contract type responsibilities and price should be in accordance with the project needs and organization capacities, not knowing this could entail less project profitability and chances of success. It is necessary to understand the alternatives and how they behave, in order to develop the right strategies to avoid overruns and improve the project quality. The goal of this thesis is to develop a decision analysis model for contract type selection. This model will become a useful tool for contractor and client preferences in an easy and effective way. Decision analysis is a powerful tool that will help us to bring clarity of thought in this process; during this thesis it is described what is a project, its phases, activities and the components that understand it, in the same way it is presented the contract management life cycle. This model attempts to link and evaluate the contract types, differentiators, and the client and contractor preferences in order to quantify the costs and benefits of each type, which could be the best option. One priority of this thesis is to understand the synergetic relationship between contract type, contract management, project management and contract price, in order to take the best decision, increasing the probability to achieve a successful project execution. As application example, a contract type selection for the EPCI (Engineering, Procurement, Construction & Installation) of a topside for a semisubmersible platform is presented.Resumen: Diferentes tipos de contrato significa diferentes incentivos, cargas y relaciones. Las responsabilidades y el precio del tipo de contrato deben estar de acuerdo con las necesidades del proyecto y las capacidades de la organización, sin saber que esto podría implicar una menor rentabilidad del proyecto y posibilidades de éxito. Es necesario comprender las alternativas y la forma en que se comportan, a fin de desarrollar las estrategias correctas para evitar los excesos y mejorar la calidad del proyecto. El objetivo de esta tesis es desarrollar un modelo de análisis de decisión para la selección del tipo de contrato. Este modelo se convertirá en una herramienta útil para las preferencias de los contratistas y clientes de una manera fácil y efectiva. El análisis de decisiones es una herramienta poderosa que nos ayudará a tener claridad de pensamiento en este proceso; Durante esta tesis se describe qué es un proyecto, sus fases, actividades y los componentes que lo comprenden, de la misma manera que se presenta el ciclo de vida de gestión de contratos. Este modelo intenta vincular y evaluar los tipos de contrato, los diferenciadores y las preferencias del cliente y del contratista para cuantificar los costos y beneficios de cada tipo, lo que podría ser la mejor opción. Una de las prioridades de esta tesis es comprender la relación sinérgica entre el tipo de contrato, la gestión de contratos, la gestión de proyectos y el precio del contrato, para tomar la mejor decisión, aumentando la probabilidad de lograr una ejecución exitosa del proyecto. Como ejemplo de aplicación, se presenta una selección de tipo de contrato para el EPCI (Ingeniería, Aprovisionamiento, Construcción e Instalación) de un topside para una plataforma semisumergible.

Abstract: In the context of the dialogues between the delegations of the Colombian National Government and the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia - Ejercito del Pueblo (FARC – EP) in order to culminate the internal conflict in Colombia, the parties defined six points to be discussed; one of them was the comprehensive agricultural development. This goal includes topics related to the access and land use, formalization of property rights, development programs with a territorial approach, among others. On September 24, 2014, the parties published a joint draft of this policy called: “The Comprehensive Rural Reform” and according to its joint communication “it contains important transformations to set the foundations for peace and to ensure the non-repetition of the conflict.” The aim of this thesis is analyzed whether the Comprehensive Rural Reform sets the groundwork that positively affects the likelihood and creation of self-organizations with communal associative forms which lead to a sustainable development and management of land in Colombian Countryside to overtake the failures of the property rights system created due to the complex social environment of the country, based on the application of the Socio-Ecological Systems (SES) Framework developed by Elinor Ostrom. The study examines the current context of Colombia’s countryside and its problematics. Then, it makes a literature review about the economic approaches (classical and dynamic) of property rights and their expected outcomes regarding communal ownership. Afterward, we present briefly the Socio- Ecological System (SES) Framework, emphasizing those variables that have been identified in field studies as basis to overcome the tragedy of contested access. Lastly, we settle an application of this framework to the Colombian Land Reform Bill and the presentation of our conclusions. Resumen: En el contexto de los diálogos entre las delegaciones del Gobierno Nacional de Colombia y las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia - Ejército del Pueblo (FARC - EP) para culminar el conflicto interno en Colombia, las partes definieron seis puntos para ser discutidos; uno de ellos fue el desarrollo agrario integral. Este objetivo incluye temas relacionados con el acceso y uso de la tierra, formalización de derechos de propiedad, programas de desarrollo con enfoque territorial, entre otros. El 24 de septiembre de 2014, las partes publicaron un borrador conjunto de esta política llamado ""La Reforma Rural Integral"" y según su comunicación conjunta ""contiene importantes transformaciones para sentar las bases de la paz y garantizar la no repetición del conflicto"". El objetivo de esta tesis es analizar si la Reforma Rural Integral establece las bases que afectan positivamente la probabilidad y la creación de organizaciones asociativas comunitarias que conducen a un desarrollo auto sostenible y de gestión de la tierra en el campo colombiano, como un método para superar los fracasos del sistema de derechos de propiedad en Colombia, debido al complejo entorno social del país, mediante la aplicación del Marco de referencia de los Sistemas Socio-ecológicos (SES) desarrollado por Elinor Ostrom. El estudio examina el contexto actual del campo colombiano y su problemática. Luego, hace una revisión de la literatura sobre los enfoques económicos (clásicos y dinámicos) de los derechos de propiedad y sus resultados esperados con respecto a la propiedad comunal. Posteriormente, se presenta brevemente el Marco del Sistema Socio-Ecológico (SES), enfatizando aquellas variables que han sido identificadas en estudios de campo como base para superar la tragedia del acceso impugnado. Finalmente, se realiza una aplicación de este marco al Proyecto de Reforma Rural Integral en Colombia y se presentan nuestras conclusiones.

Abstract: During the last decades prostitution in Bogotá, Colombia has dramatically increased. This work is the result of two months of ethnographic research in two brothels that are outside of the zone where prostitution can be legally exercised. At the site of the brothel, two illegal activities converge: illegal prostitution and drug trafficking. Using a gendered lens, this research interrogates the relation of these brothels to their surroundings. It argues that the brothels function as a medium through which male members of criminal groups express their control over local areas in the city. On the other hand, it states that the only possible way in which women who exercise prostitution can live a liveable life under the current political, economic and cultural national and global conditions, is to embody contradiction, for it is only by engaging in the illegal that they can become legitimate within society. Resumen: Durante las últimas décadas, la prostitución en Bogotá, Colombia ha aumentado dramáticamente. Este trabajo es el resultado de dos meses de investigación etnográfica en dos burdeles que se encuentran fuera de la Zona de Tolerancia. En el sitio del burdel, convergen dos actividades ilegales: prostitución ilegal y tráfico de drogas. Usando como lente la perspectiva de género, esta investigación interroga la relación de estos burdeles con su entorno. Argumenta que los burdeles funcionan como un medio a través del cual los miembros masculinos de los grupos criminales expresan su control sobre las áreas locales en la ciudad. Por otro lado, plantea que la única forma posible en que las mujeres que ejercen la prostitución pueden vivir una vida vivible conforme a las condiciones políticas, económicas y culturales actuales --nacionales y mundiales-- es encarnando la contradicción, puesto que solo mediante la incursión en la ilegalidad pueden ser consideradas como legítimas dentro de la sociedad.

Abstract: Cities have become the main centres of consumption and transformation of resources. As cities are still growing in terms of physical size, number of inhabitants and total energy consumption, unique challenges present themselves in order to safeguard a healthy urban living environment, while preventing resource shortages and pollution. The concept of urban metabolism may contribute to sustainable growth of cities as it can be used to understand emergent patterns in flows of energy and materials in the urban environment. The concept of urban metabolism draws upon an analogy with the biological meaning of metabolism, as it occurs in organisms and ecosystems. Here we present a review of the interpretation of urban metabolism in the context of urban energy dynamics and assess the validity of the proposed analogy with biology. Based on this analogy, we propose a conceptual framework for the role of urban metabolism in urban energy systems. Our review highlights that urban energy systems show a hierarchical organization comparable to ecological systems. However, the emergent patterns that result from the dynamics within urban systems differ from those occurring within ecological systems. We suggest that, in contrast to biological systems, urban energy systems lack energetic constraints at the lowest level of organisation that could enable the resource-efficient regulation of energy requirements at larger scales. The proposed framework highlights that low-level resource supply regulations may contribute to introduce scale-dependent relationships that increase energy use efficiency as cities grow. Resumen: Las ciudades han llegado a ser grandes centros de consumo y transformación de recursos. Debido a que las ciudades se mantienen en constante crecimiento en términos de tamaño físico, número de habitantes y consumo de energía, surge la necesidad de afrontar retos evidentes con el fin de salvaguardar el ambiente urbano, así como prevenir la escasez de recursos y el aumento de polución. El metabolismo urbano puede contribuir a explicar el crecimiento sostenible de las ciudades, ya que éste permite entender la emergencia de patrones en los flujos de energía y materiales en el ambiente urbano. Éste se basa en la analogía con el metabolismo en sistemas biológicos, el cual está presente tanto a nivel de organismos como de ecosistemas. En este artículo se plantea una revisión de la interpretación del metabolismo urbano en el contexto de sistemas energéticos urbanos. A partir de dicha revisión se plantea que los sitemas energéticos urbanos muestran una organización jerárquica comparable a la de los sistemas biológicos. No obstante, los patrones emergentes que resultan de la dinámica en los sistemas urbanos difieren de aquellos que ocurren en los sistemas biológicos. Nosotros sugerimos que, a diferencia de los sistemas biológicos, los sistemas urbanos no presentan limitaciones energéticas en los niveles inferiores de la organización, que trasciendan en una eficiente regulacion de los consumos energéticos en los niveles superiores del sistema. El marco conceptual propuesto en este artículo resalta que una regulación en el abastecimiento de recursos en los niveles inferiores, puede llegar a inducir relaciones de carácter alométrico que representen un aumento en la eficiencia energética en la medida que las ciudades continuan con su crecimiento.

Abstract: The rights discourse is commonly grounded in the ideal principle that all human rights are indivisible and treated as equal in status. In consequence, prioritising one right over another represents a defiance to the conventional rights-based argumentation, and a difficult process that becomes inevitable in certain circumstance. However, the dominant rights discourse, based on proportionality, does not provided a well-defined criteria for such difficult task. Defining what is reasonable without a clear conception of justice can lead to decisions that are dictated by the highest-level of deference towards governmental policies. It would be more sensible to openly discuss about principles of decision-making, rather than simply alluding to financial constraints and the expertise required for policy making, as a shortcut for the hard work embedded in the question of justice. I argue in this dissertation that constitutional law is ultimately an enterprise of moral reasoning. As such, it requires a comprehensive theory of justice that complements the test of proportionality and guides the judge on the difficult task of balancing conflicting interests. I conclude, after analysing the Colombian jurisprudence on the right to water, that one can identify specific criteria of distributive justice, in particular the concept of the minimum core, to shape a court´s reasoning in a principled manner in the field of social rights. Resumen: Una de las ideas centrales al discurso de los derechos humanos es que todos los derechos son indivisibles, interdependientes y poseen un valor similar. Esta idea, aunque atractiva en teoría, desconoce la necesidad de hacer concesiones y sacrificios, especialmente en el campo de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales. La teoría dominante del derecho constitucional, fundamentada en el concepto de proporcionalidad, no ofrece un criterio claro para la difícil labor de ponderar derechos. Más bien, acostumbra otorgar un gran margen de deferencia para que el gobierno o el poder legislativo adopten medidas “razonables”, asumiendo que las discusiones de políticas públicas escapan al control legal. Parecería más sensato, sin embargo, que dentro del escenario constitucional pudieran discutirse también los principios que guían las decisiones de políticas públicas, antes que omitir esta deliberación apelando al conocimiento especializado o a la inevitable escasez de recursos. En este documento defiendo la idea que el derecho constitucional es, en últimas, un ejercicio de razón práctica y como tal, requiere una teoría comprensiva de la justicia que complemente los interrogantes que deja abiertos el test de proporcionalidad. Para ello, tomo como referencia el caso del derecho al agua dentro de la jurisprudencia de la Corte Constitucional de Colombia para concluir que es posible construir principios de justicia distributiva -principalmente el concepto de mínimo vital- que sirvan como referentes para evaluar la constitucionalidad de medidas que afecten derechos sociales.

Abstract: The issue of Network Neutrality has become one of the most discussed topics in the IT sector in recent times with calls by Network Providers to drop the current scheme and allow them to discriminate the traffic that passes through their networks. One of the possible consequences of dropping this framework is that internet providers will now be able to engage in foreclosure of downstream competitors (e.g. VoIP services that compete with their fixed telephony service). To see if such incentives do exist this study analyzes the issue through a theoretical framework, first presenting a review of the literature on the topic; then analyzing one of the few theoretical models available, developed by Chen and Nalebuff, reassessing their conclusion that there are no incentives to degrade the downstream competitor’s service if the downstream good’s valuation is low enough; extending their analysis for the case of higher valuation of the downstream good; and, finally, developing a model where the vertically integrated firm’s upstream product is essential only to the downstream competitor but not to its own downstream product, much like the case of DSL internet providers. The study finds that the conclusion that Chen and Nalebuff reach is misleading, that if the valuation of the downstream good is high enough then foreclosure is profitable and that, when the vertically integrated firm’s product does not require the upstream product, degradation is not profitable but access denial is. Resumen: Recientemente, la neutralidad de la red se ha convertido en uno de los temas más discutidos en el sector de las tecnologías de la información, donde los proveedores de red han abogado para que su uso cese, permitiéndoles así discriminar el tráfico que fluye por sus redes. Una de las posibles consecuencias de cesar el uso de la neutralidad de la red es que los proveedores de internet podrían excluir a competidores en el mercado secundario o “downstream” (p.e. servicios de telefonía IP que compiten con sus servicios tradicionales de telefonía fija). Para determinar si estos incentivos existen, este estudio analiza el problema dentro de un marco teórico, primero presentando una revisión de la literatura disponible; posteriormente analizando uno de los pocos modelos teóricos desarrollado por Chen y Nalebuff, revisando su conclusión de que no hay incentivos para degradar el servicio del competidor en el mercado secundario si la valoración de este servicio es lo suficientemente baja; extendiendo este análisis para el caso en el que la valoración del servicio secundario es más alta; y, finalmente, desarrollando un modelo donde el producto primario (upstream) del proveedor verticalmente integrado es esencial únicamente para el competidor en el mercado secundario pero no para su propio producto, similar al caso de proveedores de internet DSL. El estudio encuentra que la conclusión de Chen y Nalebuff es errónea, que si la valoración del producto secundario es lo suficientemente alta entonces excluir es rentable y que, cuando el proveedor integrado verticalmente no requiere el producto primario, degradar el servicio de su competidor no es rentable pero excluirlo si lo es.

Abstract: Inequality in Latin America remains scandalously high but has improved remarkably in the last decade. Multiple reasons for this inequality reduction have been posited, but until now few have inquired as to the role of tax policy in this decline. Therefore, in this dissertation I attempt to fill this gap by investigating whether tax policy in Latin America has been more pro-equity during the recent period of declining inequality in comparison with the period of high and increasing inequality in the 1990s, such that it might have contributed to the decline in inequality observed in recent years. To answer this question, this dissertation begins by explaining, using both empirical and theoretical arguments, the importance of looking at taxation to explain changes in inequality. It then defines pro-equity taxation as dependent on three factors – collection, progressivity and cyclicality – and proposes measuring these factors using a novel methodology consisting of adjusting tax variables to business and commodity cycles. Using case studies of the five largest commodity-dependent economies in the region – Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru – this study derives the conclusion that, although some improvements were made, particularly in cyclicality, the authorities’ use of the tax instrument when inequality was declining was no more pro-equity than in the 1990s, when inequality was high and increasing. This suggests that the inequality reduction was not achieved as a result of the tax policy pursued, but mainly in spite of it. It suggests as well that tax policy as an instrument for reducing inequality remains underused in the region and therefore much remains to be done -and certainly can be done- in the tax arena. Resumen: La desigualdad en América Latina sigue siendo escandalosamente alta pero se ha reducido. Este documento se pregunta si esta reducción ha tenido algo que ver con los impuestos. Luego de un análisis de 5 casos de estudios (Argentina, Chile, Colombia, México y Peru) este estudio concluye que la forma en que se usaron los impuestos no han cambiado en los últimos años. Esto sugiere que la reducción de desigualdad no está relacionada con una nueva forma de hacer impuestos.