Abstract: Irrigation plays a critical role in paddy rice cultivation. Water availability becomes a limiting factor when irrigation do not consider crop water requirements and the predominant edaphic properties. This study was conducted in five paddy rice fields cultivation subjected to different irrigation schedules in the UsoCoello irrigation district, Tolima region, Colombia. The aim of this research was to assess the effectiveness of geophysical data, specifically apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) collected by means of the EM38-MK2 device and multispectral data based on the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) from Sentinel-2A to delineate site- specific management zones (MZs). Prior to analysis, the collected variables underwent exploratory data analysis to identify and remove outliers and inliers. Further, geostatistical techniques were employed to describe the spatial variability of ECa measurements. To reduce dimensionality and account for spatial correlations in the data, a modified version of principal component analysis (PCA) known as MULTISPATI-PCA was applied. Fuzzy k-means was performed to categorize the MZ based on two sPC, where the optimal number of MZs was determined based on summary indices. Finally, each MZ was validated using Mixed Linear Models (MLM) considering spatial structures with random stratified sampling of rice yield and soil water content from TDR measurements. NDWI and ECa were poorly positively correlated (6% to 31% correlation) for most of the Plots to slightly higher negative correlation (3% to 46%) being statistically significant (Pr <0.05), while the multispectral bands showed strong correlation with the vegetation index, they presented the opposite effect (weak correlations) between ECa. Data pre-processing removed 9% (Plot 2) to 21% (Plot 1) of the total observations, lowering the coefficient of variation (CV). The spatial structure was analyzed by semivariograms, and fitted by spherical, gaussian and exponential models showing a high cross validation coefficient (CVC) of 91%, 97.5%, 76%, 70% and 90% for Plot 1 to Plot 5, respectively. Two MZs were selected and their means exhibited statistically significant (Pr<0.05) differences through Tukey’s test, providing further evidence of the effectiveness of integrating geophysical and multispectral data in delineating these zones. This methodology will be used as input for optimizing paddy rice cultivation by means of irrigation scheduling in the UsoCoello irrigation district, Tolima, Colombia.

Abstract: This thesis revolves around Metarhizium, fungi well-known for their entomopathogenic nature but recently discovered to have multifaceted lifestyles. They thrive in soil as saprophytes and engage in plant rhizospheres, positively impacting plant health. However, the mechanisms underlying these interactions remain elusive. The thesis examines Metarhizium brunneum's connections with plants, insects, and pathogens through five distinct chapters. These chapters entail: 1) identifying fungal isolates' differences and their efficacy as biocontrol agents, 2) exploring their association with crops, particularly oilseed rape and potatoes, and understanding their effects on insect pests and plant diseases, 3) studying the impact on herbivores like Psylliodes chrysocephala, Myzus persicae, and Brevicoryne brassicae feeding on Brassica napus plants, 4) evaluating their influence on the cabbage root fly (Delia radicum) and the mechanisms involved in plant defense pathways, and 5) examining their ability to protect oilseed rape plants against Verticillium longisporum, dissecting the mechanisms through in vitro and greenhouse experiments. These research aspects collectively elucidate the potential applications of Metarhizium brunneum and contribute to a deeper understanding of its role in agricultural systems. Resumen: Esta tesis gira en torno a Metarhizium, hongos bien conocidos por su naturaleza entomopatógena, pero de los que recientemente se ha descubierto que tienen estilos de vida polifacéticos. Prosperan en el suelo como saprofitos y se introducen en las rizosferas de las plantas, influyendo positivamente en su salud. Sin embargo, los mecanismos que subyacen a estas interacciones siguen siendo elusivos. La tesis examina las conexiones de Metarhizium brunneum con plantas, insectos y patógenos a través de cinco capítulos distintos. Estos capítulos comprenden: 1) identificar las diferencias de los aislados fúngicos y su eficacia como agentes de biocontrol, 2) explorar su asociación con los cultivos, en particular la colza y la patata, y comprender sus efectos sobre las plagas de insectos y las enfermedades de las plantas, 3) estudiar el impacto sobre herbívoros como Psylliodes chrysocephala, Myzus persicae, y Brevicoryne brassicae que se alimentan de plantas de Brassica napus, 4) evaluar su influencia en la mosca de la raíz de la col (Delia radicum) y los mecanismos implicados en las vías de defensa de las plantas, y 5) examinar su capacidad para proteger las plantas de colza oleaginosa contra Verticillium longisporum, diseccionando los mecanismos mediante experimentos in vitro y en invernadero. Estos aspectos de la investigación dilucidan colectivamente las aplicaciones potenciales de Metarhizium brunneum y contribuyen a una comprensión más profunda de su papel en los sistemas agrícolas.

Abstract: The transition from armed conflict to post-conflict periods in tropical countries can have significant impacts on natural ecosystems and their services. Colombia, a country currently transitioning into a post-conflict period, faces significant challenges arising from the peace agreement. These challenges are related to rural land development, socio-economic recovery, stabilization of the agricultural frontier, and the conservation of its tropical forests. Therefore, understanding the role of ecosystem services becomes important for sustainable land development strategies that prioritize the well-being of local communities and the conservation of tropical forests and the services they supply. The objective of this thesis was to explore the supply of ecosystem services in a post-conflict tropical forest region and assess the implications of different rural landscape alternatives on ecosystem services supply and local communities’ livelihoods, using El Capricho Environmental Unit for Peace and Social Services (El Capricho UAPSS) from San José del Guaviare, Colombia, as a case study. To achieve the research objective, the study employed as research methods the analysis of land cover maps and ecosystem services analysis, including the bundle analysis. The data collection methods included an expert assessment through the application of an online survey and literature review. Pastures were identified as the major land cover type in the baseline landscape, followed by secondary vegetation and dense forest. Three rural landscape alternatives were determined for future landscape development: agroforestry, forest conservation, and intensification of extensive livestock farming and timber extraction, also referred to as livestock & timber intensification. The study identified 22 main ecosystem services in the study area, categorized into nine provisioning, nine regulating and maintenance, and four cultural services. The findings revealed the high importance of water supply, livestock, water cycle regulation, and crops, among other services, for local communities. The assessment of ecosystem services showed that more natural land covers, such as dense forest and fragmented forest, exhibited higher capacities to supply ecosystem services compared to highly human-modified land covers. A possible trade-off between livestock service and other ecosystem services was also observed. Furthermore, the study assessed the ecosystem services supply within the baseline landscape and the three alternatives. For the baseline landscape, it was found that the more homogenous landscape pattern benefits some ES at the expense of others, highlighting the high potential supply of livestock and carbon sequestration. The agroforestry and forest conservation alternatives, characterized by landscape heterogeneity, showed a more balanced bundle of ecosystem services with a high potential supply. In contrast, the livestock & timber intensification alternative, characterized by landscape homogeneity, showed a decline in the potential supply of most ecosystem services. The implications of these findings for local communities suggest the importance of maintaining a diverse range of ecosystem services. Recommendations for sustainable rural landscape development include the promotion of agroforestry practices, forest conservation efforts, and careful management of livestock. Additionally, other economic activities can emerge by making use of ecosystem services with high potential supply, such as nature-based tourism, nature photography, and payment for ecosystem services schemes. This can support local communities’ livelihoods and provide new income opportunities and income diversification. These recommendations, combined with community involvement and monitoring systems, can help rural areas in post-conflict tropical forests achieve a high level of rural development and preserve ecosystem services.

Resumen: Esta investigación compara las memorias escritas en la Comisión de la Verdad de Colombia -un documento de 11 tomos resultante de la firma del Acuerdo de Paz con la guerrilla de las FARC- con otras memorias orales sobre las causas y consecuencias de la guerra urbana en Medellín entre 1977 y 2006. Los resultados del método comparativo de las memorias establecieron tres causales de la violencia en Medellín: la disputa por la tierra, el ethos social y el círculo de venganza. Además, se hallaron tres consecuencias: la creación de milicias urbanas y grupos de autodefensas, la reunión de múltiples guerras en un mismo periodo histórico (guerrillas, carteles de narcotráfico, autodefensas y grupos delincuenciales), y el desarrollo de mecanismos de resistencia civil e institucional. Este es, pues, un análisis revisionista a la diversa literatura científica sobre el conflicto en Medellín, al trabajo de la Comisión de la Verdad y a las memorias orales de organizaciones sociales, para concatenar ideas similares frente a las causas y consecuencias de la violencia. La investigación aporta, desde una perspectiva sociohistórica, a la comprensión del conflicto que marcó a Medellín como la ciudad más violenta del mundo en 1991 con más de 6 mil asesinatos. Abstract: This investigation looks to compare the written memories in the Commission of Colombian Truth with other oral memories about the causes and consequences of the war in Medellin between 1977 and 2006. Although the Colombian armed conflict was centralized in rural areas and resulted in 12,000 victims, cities like Medellin were also locations of confrontation. The results establish three causes of the violence in Medellin: the dispute over the land, the social ethos and the circle of vengeance. Furthermore, three consequences were found: the creation of urban militias, and self-defense groups, the reunion of multiple wars in a single historical period (guerillas, drug trafficking cartels, self-defense and delinquent groups), and the development of mechanisms of civil and institutional resistance. This article hopes to, from a socio-historical perspective, further understand the conflict that framed Medellin as the most violent city in the world in 1991.

Abstract: Las lesiones cerebrales agudas (LCA) se asocian con altas tasas de mortalidad y malos resultados funcionales a largo plazo. La medición de biomarcadores del líquido cefalorraquídeo ventricular (vLCR) en pacientes con LCA puede ayudar a dilucidar algunas de las vías fisiopatológicas implicadas en el pronóstico de estos pacientes. Primero realizamos una búsqueda sistemática y una revisión descriptiva (Crit Care. 5 de agosto de 2021; 25 (1): 278; DOI: 10.1186/s13054-021-03698-z) donde concluimos que en pacientes con LCA, las concentraciones alteradas de biomarcadores proteicos en el vLCR relacionados con el daño citoesquelético, la inflamación, la apoptosis y el estrés oxidativo pueden predecir peores resultados neurológicos. Debido a estos resultados, realizamos un estudio de observación prospectivo (Neurocrit Care. 2022 Oct;37(2):463-470.doi:10.1007/s12028-022-01507-1.) donde concluimos que la expresión desregulada de la proteína en el vLCR diferenciaba entre LCA y no LCA. Luego realizamos otro estudio (J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 27 de abril de 2023. doi:10.1097/ANA.0000000000000916.) donde concluimos que la expresión de patrones moleculares asociados al peligro (DAMP) específicos del vLCR se asociaba con un aumento de episodios de hipertensión intracraneal severa y muerte. Por último, en otro estudio observacional (Crit Care. 2023 Jun 24;27(1):249. doi: 10.1186/s13054-023-04538-y.), concluimos que las concentraciones de proteínas del vLCR después de una LCA eran un factor de riesgo para el desarrollo de enfermedades neurodegenerativas crónicas después de una LCA no traumática. Los hallazgos más importantes de esta tesis fueron que la respuesta proteómica después de una LCA es homogénea entre la LCA traumática y no traumática, involucra múltiples proteínas (DAMP) y puede estar asociada con enfermedades neurodegenerativas a largo plazo también en la LCA no traumática.

Resumen: En esta disertación se contextualiza el short squeeze de GameStop ocurrido entre diciembre de 2020, enero y febrero de 2021, donde usuarios del subreddit WallStreetBet logran disparar el precio de la empresa de videojuegos GameStop, mediante la compra de acciones a través de aplicaciones de bolsa minorista como Robinhood, que hacen accesible a cualquier persona participar en el mercado de valores, y acción que sólo era llevada a cabo por fondos de cobertura. Las pequeñas inversiones se convirtieron en un movimiento a gran escala y único en su género que llevó a la quiebra a reputados fondos de alto riesgo y sacudió el sistema de Wall Street. Además, este análisis pretende comprender cuál era la razón de ser del movimiento, las estrategias discursivas para convencer a millones de usuarios de que se unieran al movimiento, aunque tuvieran que asumir el riesgo de invertir su propio capital en lo que también se conoce como ""meme stock"", que al final es una aventura impredecible. El método utilizado para servir a este propósito fue hacer una lectura cercana y un análisis del discurso de los posts y comentarios más y menos populares en el subreddit WallStreetBet con respecto a GameStop entre diciembre de 2020, enero y febrero de 2021, para identificar los patrones y los términos vernáculos apropiados por la comunidad, esto también mediante la participación en discusiones más amplias sobre la participación digital, las acciones conectivas y la gamificación de la economía. Los hallazgos incluyen, por un lado, la importancia de la máscara en la cultura vernácula de Reddit, que da a los usuarios un sentido de posibilidad, libertad y unión como miembros de una comunidad más grande, y por otro lado, la importancia de la ""máscara"" o construir una ""persona"" o una nueva identidad en la cultura vernácula de Reddit, que le da al usuario la sensación de posibilidad mas allá de su cotidiano, libertad y unión como miembros de una comunidad mayor, por otro lado, también demuestra el poder del enjambre y las acciones conectivas.

Abstract: The master thesis, ""Exploring the Colombian Constitutional Jurisprudence through Bibliometric Analysis and Large Language Models: An Application in Legal Research,"" represents a groundbreaking fusion of statistics, data science, and legal research, poised to revolutionize the Colombian legal landscape. The study addresses a critical gap in the Colombian Constitutional Court's search capabilities in a digital era where legal information retrieval is evolving. The research uses cutting-edge statistical techniques and data science methodologies to introduce a novel similarity metric for legal documents, seamlessly integrating co-citation, bibliographic coupling, and advanced natural language processing (NLP) techniques. The exciting journey begins by recognizing the transformative potential of information and communication technology (ICT) in legal practice. The thesis challenges the status quo, proposing a semantic search engine that goes beyond keyword based queries. It's not just about finding documents; it's about understanding their context, a gamechanger for legal professionals, students, and the public navigating the rich tapestry of Colombian jurisprudence. The heartbeat of the thesis is the innovative application of large language models (LLMs) and the Word2Vec algorithm to the intricacies of Colombian law. The research isn't merely about technology; it's about fine-tuning these models to the nuances of legal language. The results? A powerful semantic search engine that doesn't just retrieve information but empowers users with a deeper understanding of legal concepts and principles. The thesis doesn't stop at technological advancements. It envisions a societal impact that resonates across economic, social, and legal dimensions. This isn't just about efficiency gains; it's about access to justice, legal literacy, and transparency. The proposed tools promise to be a catalyst for change, fostering a legal system that's inclusive, efficient, fair, and responsive to the needs of individuals. In the realm of data science competitions, this thesis stands out as a beacon of innovation with a clear path to real-world application. The fusion of statistics, data science, and legal expertise isn't just theoretical; it's a roadmap for tangible impact. As the research unfolds, it reveals the potential for winning a competition and the promise of transforming the way legal decisions are made, accessed, and understood in Colombia. This thesis isn't just a contender; it's a champion in the making, poised to leave an indelible mark on the future of legal research and data-driven decision-making in Colombia.

El agua es una riqueza que hay que conservar, y en el universo del jardín se convierte en una importante preocupación. El reto del jardinero del tercer milenio es plantar, acondicionar y conservar el suelo con criterios ecológicos, teniendo en cuenta la elección de las plantas y la recuperación del agua de la lluvia. Gracias a esta obra descubrirá todas las técnicas adecuadas para economizar agua y recuperar aquella que procede de fuentes naturales (pozos, charcas…). Profusamente ilustrado, este libro presenta una cuidada y variada selección de plantas resistentes para terrenos secos, que adornarán su jardín y lo llenarán de agradables aromas. Además, la autora analiza con detalle cómo reaccionan las plantas y los jardines ante la falta de agua: crear un jardín resistente a la sequía está ahora al alcance de todos.

El agua es una riqueza que hay que conservar, y en el universo del jardín se convierte en una importante preocupación. El reto del jardinero del tercer milenio es plantar, acondicionar y conservar el suelo con criterios ecológicos, teniendo en cuenta la elección de las plantas y la recuperación del agua de la lluvia. Gracias a esta obra descubrirá todas las técnicas adecuadas para economizar agua y recuperar aquella que procede de fuentes naturales (pozos, charcas…). Profusamente ilustrado, este libro presenta una cuidada y variada selección de plantas resistentes para terrenos secos, que adornarán su jardín y lo llenarán de agradables aromas. Además, la autora analiza con detalle cómo reaccionan las plantas y los jardines ante la falta de agua: crear un jardín resistente a la sequía está ahora al alcance de todos.

Abstract: When lower-dimensional self-sustained objects encounter higher-dimensional ones, they can be dissolved and absorbed. We delve into this intriguing erasure phenomenon resulting from topological defects’ interaction. This general phenomenon has significant implications in cosmology and fundamental physics, which we discuss in the first part of the thesis. We start with the erasure of onedimensional objects. One key finding is that vortices or strings of all kinds, such as cosmic strings, QCD flux tubes, or fundamental strings, undergo erasure when encountering defects like domain walls, solitonic structures, or D-branes that deconfine their fluxes. Consequently, a new mechanism of cosmic string break-up emerges. We explain the erasure phenomenon by the loss of coherence in the annihilation process. Additionally, for the case of point-like objects immersed in three-dimensional objects, we explore the interactions between magnetic monopoles and domain walls formed by the same order parameter within an SU(2) gauge theory. As previously suggested, a collision between monopoles and a domain wall leads to their erasure. The monopoles unwind and spread their magnetic charge over the wall, with the erasure process consistently occurring due to the loss of coherence in the collision and the entropy suppression on the recreation of a monopole. This erasure phenomenon has significant cosmological implications, particularly in post-inflationary phase transitions. Furthermore, it sheds light on the nature of gauge theories with coexisting phases, such as confining and Higgs phases. The erasure phenomenon has significant imprints in cosmology and astrophysics as well. In particular, a new mechanism of cosmic string break-up emerges. Moreover, the monopole erasure may serve as a solution to the cosmological monopole problem. In another investigation of interactions of topological defects, we examine the annihilation of a pair of ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopoles confined by a string. We focus on scenarios where the scales of monopoles and strings are comparable. The emitted GW spectrum agrees with previous calculations for wavelengths longer than the system width and before the collision. However, in head-on collisions, the monopoles are never re-created. Instead, the system decays into waves of Higgs and gauge fields, and the recreation of a monopole pair becomes highly improbable due to the loss of coherence during the annihilation process. This behavior is expected to be analogous in systems involving heavy quarks connected by a QCD string. Thus, in a similar regime, the string does not re-stretch after the initial collapse, but the system hadronizes and decays into numerous mesons and glueballs. In the second part of the thesis, we changed our subject of study to another self-sustained objects. These objects attain the maximal entropy permitted by unitarity. They are called saturons, as they saturate unitarity and entropy bounds. Interestingly enough, they share many properties with black holes, for which they are considered exceptional. For instance, the time evolution and information-processing properties of BHs are also found in saturons. Thus, we suggest a “Black hole-Saturon” correspondence. Our work confirms this connection within a renormalizable SU(N) invariant theory. The theory’s spectrum contains a tower of non-topological defects of the Q-ball type, or vacuum bubbles, representing bound states of SU(N) Goldstones. Surprisingly, despite the absence of gravity, these saturated bound states exhibit striking similarities to BHs, displaying an information horizon, an entropy governed by the Bekenstein-Hawking formula, thermal evaporation at a rate corresponding to their inverse radius, and an information retrieval time equivalent to Page’s time. The BH-Saturon correspondence has profound implications for BH physics and saturated systems, both in fundamental theory and observational aspects.