La producción de la libertad es un análisis de las estrategias económicas de los esclavos de Río de Janeiro a mediados del siglo XIX y busca explicar las tasas de manumisión, relativamente altas, en la ciudad, desde el punto de vista de las finanzas de los cautivos. La hipótesis central es que los esclavos lograron forjar riquezas para sí mismos, que se hicieron evidentes cuando compraron su manumisión. Este patrimonio financiero fue generado por la relación entre las variables de ingreso, ahorro, consumo e inversión dentro de la familia esclava y estaba en relación con las coyunturas económicas y demográficas por las que atravesaba la ciudad.

Abstract: Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) and their governing structures are responsible not only to their shareholders but to a wide variety of stakeholders due to the scale of their business activities and their impact on societal and environmental levels. This study builds on such premise and investigates the relationship between the educational background of MNEs chief executive officers – CEOs and the firm’s corporate social performance (CSP). It also examines whether this relationship is moderated by the organizational visibility of the firm and/or by the institutional quality of the country where it is headquartered. First, while prior literature has predominantly focused on demographic characteristics of the firm’s dominant coalition that are likely to influence the company’s engagement with CSR activities, the current study examines their impact on the social performance of the company. Particularly, it focuses on the CEOs education background as a construct of both level and field of education. Second, building on the ‘upper-echelons’ and the stakeholder’s theories, the study theorizes and empirically investigates the mentioned relationships through a quantitative approach using a sample comprised by the Fortune Global 500. The study reveals that there is no significant correlation between CEOs educational background and firm’s CSP. Moreover, that neither the institutional quality nor the organizational visibility have a moderating effect on said relationship. Results are discussed and suggestions are made for further research. Resumen: Las empresas multinacionales (EMN) y sus estructuras de gobierno son responsables no sólo ante sus accionistas sino ante una gran variedad de partes interesadas debido a la escala de sus actividades comerciales y su impacto en la sociedad y el medio ambiente. El estudio se basa en tal premisa e investiga la relación entre la formación académica de los directores ejecutivos de las empresas multinacionales y el desempeño social empresarial de la compañía. Así mismo, examina si esta relación está moderada por la visibilidad organizacional de la firma y / o por la calidad institucional del país donde tiene su sede principal. En primer lugar, aunque la literatura previa se ha centrado predominantemente en las características demográficas de la coalición dominante de la empresa, las cuales tienden a influenciar los niveles de compromiso de la compañía con las actividades de responsabilidad social empresarial – RSE, el estudio actual examina su impacto en el desempeño social de la empresa. En particular, se centra en la formación académica de los directores ejecutivos, entendiéndola como una construcción de dos elementos a saber, el campo de estudio y el nivel educativo. En segundo lugar, basándose en las teorías de las ‘coaliciones dominantes’ y de los grupos de interés, el estudio teoriza e investiga empíricamente las relaciones mencionadas a través de un enfoque cuantitativo utilizando una muestra compuesta por las empresas del ‘Fortune Global 500’. El estudio revela que no existe una correlación significativa entre la formación académica de los directores ejecutivos y el desempeño social empresarial de las compañías. Adicionalmente, que ni la calidad institucional ni la visibilidad organizacional tienen un efecto moderador sobre dicha relación. Se discuten los resultados y se hacen sugerencias para futuras investigaciones.

Abstract: The adequate provision of service delivery is essential for social welfare; however, providers performance varies, tending to underperform in developing countries. Therefore, whether providers responsiveness is sensitive to citizen oversight remains a relevant question for public governance. To this extent, Understanding the dynamics of accountability as a strategy to foster access, quality, and affordability of services delivery is vital to ensure development. This thesis establishes a quantitative assessment of the relationship between accountability and development. First, I systematically reviewed the empirical literature evaluating how accountability interventions affect service delivery in developing countries between 1990-2020, finding twenty-one papers from nine developing countries. Then, I conducted a meta-analysis based on an RVE model with over 90 outcomes to quantitatively synthesise the effectiveness of accountability in triggering citizen oversight of service delivery and providers responsiveness. The findings suggest that although accountability increases citizen knowledge of civic and political means to demand service delivery reforms, factors such as context, accountability structure and interventions length influence its effectiveness. While the results provide evidence to inform policy-making about aspects that effectively ignite citizen participation, they also suggest future research avenues to further conceptualise this relationship in an era of widely accessible information and new approaches to democracy.

Abstract: Entrepreneurial Companies play a fundamental role in economic growth, the creation of employment, local and regional development, and social cohesion. Start-ups will not necessarily become the largest source for employment, but they are considered economic drivers that commercialize innovation, expand internationally and create economic value. With the recent increase in prominence of new entrepreneurial ventures all over the world, much attention has been devoted to the creation of new firms. Belgium consists of three main regions: Brussels, Flanders, and Wallonia. The breakdown of start-ups according to these regions is the following: Brussels: 31.5%, Flanders: 53.4%, and Wallonia: 15.1%. Note that Brussels, despite hosting only 11% of all active companies in Belgium, is doing exceptionally well regarding its share of start-ups and scaleups; almost 50% of all Belgian start-ups are concentrated in and around the cities of Brussels, Ghent, and Antwerp. It is no surprise that, being the largest cities of Belgium, students make up for a significant portion of the population. More than half of the companies are active in the following categories: eCommerce, Software as a Service (SaaS), consumer mobile/web applications, industrial technology/production, and education. Half of the companies are at the start-up stage (i.e. completion of MVP or initial customers/revenue). 22% is in the seed stage and 24% in growth stage - 85% of the companies are mainly in B2B. While the majority (55%) of entrepreneurs believe that their product or service is a novelty in the world, only 4% realizes that their product or service is not a market innovation. In addition to that, 23% of startups do not have employees (Mohout, 2016). The supplying side of the market for informal capital consists of high net-worth individuals with considerable business experience, commonly known as Business Angels (BAs). Business Angels invest a portion of their wealth in high-risk, high-return start-ups (Coveney & Moore, Business Angels: Securing Start-up Finance, 1998). While it is difficult to precisely quantify the size of the angel market (due to its informal nature), some studies estimate its size to be twice the size of the institutional venture capital market (Freear, Sohl, & Wetzel, 1995). This suggests that Business Angels provide the largest amount of capital among early-stage ventures and fund a greater number of firms than venture capitalists (VCs) do. After receiving a first investment from a Business Angel, start-ups face a new critical question: whether to raise new funding under the form of debt or equity and, in the case of equity, involving new Business Angels or migrating to Venture Capital. Literature suggests that these young enterprises more often than not receive funds from equity in the early stages. However, in the case of demand for more resources and having a BA as back up, the entrepreneur may appeal to traditional financing sources in order to maintain the ownership. Resumen: Las microempresas juegan un rol fundamental en el crecimiento económico de un país, la creación de nuevos empleos y el desarrollo local y regional. Start-ups no se convierten necesariamente en la mayor fuente de empleo pero si son considerados impulsadores económicos que comercializan innovación, se expanden internacionalmente y crean valor económico. Después de recibir una primera inversión de un Ángel Inversionista, Start-Ups tienen que enfrentar una nueva y critica pregunta: ¿es mejor conseguir nuevos fondos adquiriendo una deuda o nuevo capital proveniente de inversionistas y en caso de recurrir a inversionistas, conseguir un nuevo ángel inversionista o migrar a un fondo de inversión? La literatura sugiere que estas nuevas empresas a menudo reciben fondos de capital en las primeras etapas de inversión. Sin embargo, teniendo un Ángel inversionista como respaldo, el empresario puede optar por métodos de financiación más tradicionales con la intensión de mantener propia la empresa.

Abstract: Law 160 of 1994 in Colombia marks a point of transit between the sterile attempts for agrarian reform in the 20th century and a series of market-based land policies. However, this law also marks the end of a cycle of peasant mobilization, especially in border areas, and with it a partial recognition of the peasant settlers is achieved, through what the law named Peasant Reserve Zones (PRZ). These zones allow basically three main things to the inhabitants of frontier zones: the titling of the land that the settlers have transformed and that they informally possess, the closure of the agricultural frontier through a control of the amount of land that can be owned inside the zone, and the peasant governance of the zone. The peasant governance is manifested through processes of territorial ordering, in which the peasant associations that impulse each zone regulates the social and economic activities of it. The majority of the academic literature that has analyzed the PRZ in the last 25 years has focused its attention in particular zones treating them as case studies. Through these cases, this literature has presented the PRZ as a reaction of the peasant communities to the processes of capital accumulation and capital penetration in the Colombian countryside. Nevertheless, this literature has done this analysis without considering in depth the variation in the strategies the PRZ have used in developing a repertoire of contention against the implementation of land policies before the law 160 was issued and after it, and focusing mainly in the critical geography discussion of the dynamics of territorialization. Through a sociological and historical analysis, this paper offers an initial exploration of the dynamic process of formation of a repertoire of contention of the Colombian PRZ. This paper analyzes in a parallel way the formation of the Colombian state and the formation of a peasant social movement. It concludes arguing that the PRZ have developed two repertoires of contention through which they have at the same time resist and create the Colombian state, and 5 strategies that have enabled them a margin of maneuver between the two repertoires.

Abstract: “Green extractivism” refers to the way in which decarbonisation and the transition to green energy as part of the sustainable development policies of the Global North have increased the commodification of nature and expanded the extraction of minerals. Many of these minerals are located in the Global South, and within the territory of peasant and Indigenous communities. One example is the case of Chile, which has some of the largest reserves of lithium in the world; a mineral used for the production of batteries key to renewable energy technologies. In this dissertation, using a political ecology approach, I examine lithium mining in the Salar de Atacama (“the Salar”) in Chile, and the dynamics between the State, extractive companies, and Atacameña Indigenous communities. With the results obtained through a literature review and document analysis, I demonstrate how green extractivism perpetuates asymmetric local relations, and how this is related to the socio-environmental effects faced by Indigenous Atacameña communities due to the exploitation of lithium mining in their territories. Relying on an original analysis of legal and policy documents, I argue that green extractivism highlights the structural deficiencies of lithium mining regulation and Chile's neoextractivist system. These in turn contribute to the unequal and unfair distribution of the socioenvironmental costs of lithium exploitation in the Salar de Atacama. The dissertation shows that mining companies operating in the Salar benefit from the commodification of nature and transfer externalities to local communities to bear the costs of the green economy policies of the Global North. Nevertheless, I explain that the Atacameña Indigenous communities, despite being in an asymmetric relationship, have assumed an active role, through legal and political mechanisms, in defending their rights and demanding that companies and the State recognise their obligations to protect the Salar’s ecology. The dissertation concludes by contemplating possible political changes through a new constitution in Chile in the next few years and what this may mean for the dominance of green extractivism, especially for the Salar.

Abstract: The case studies of Sudan and Venezuela, in light of the existing literature on diasporas, provide an insight into the role diaspora organisations play in assisting their countries of origin during humanitarian crises. Through a comparative exercise it is shown how they collaborate, coordinate and distribute different types of resources in protracted situations where humanitarian aid is clearly needed but often limited. It is how the performed analysis makes it possible to establish both strengths and weaknesses of these diasporas’ involvement, something that should be carefully considered in terms of the impact on the overall well-being of affected and vulnerable communities in their homelands. Which, in turn, paves the way for more research to be done on diasporas as legitimate humanitarian actors in the international system, as well as highlights the necessity for establishing mutually beneficial relationships with traditional international actors.

Abstract: The Pulp Fruit Imports and commercialization from Colombia to Spain Business Plan is a project that aims to support the solution of 3 main challenges in Colombia (Organic food waste, Ex-warriors from peace accords signature returning to society trough farming opportunities and life quality improvement to current farmers) while needs from Spanish consumers are satisfied. This last ones, after the pandemic, increased their awareness of consuming responsibly, which means protect their health and the environment at the same time the want enjoy a convenient and natural drink to join their meals and that allows them to continue with their life rhythm. For that reason, Amazonas Eco offers a range of exotic fruits that are transformed into pulp fruit through a local strategic partner with Bio certifications, then transported to Spain to be sold through the customer's preferred channels. This business plan includes a bibliographical study that uses Colombian and Spanish available data from different authorities combined with a filed work survey conducted to Spanish consumers that was used afterwards to develop case of study of Marketing Analysis using Statistical tools such as Multiple regression and Conjoint Analysis. These both supported to define main market trends, STEEP and Porter Analysis and marketing strategy (Segmentation, Price, Placement and Promotion). Furthermore interviews were done to a current exported and producer of pulp fruit from Colombia and to and Spanish expert profesor in logistics, these last interviews supported to define business model, Operational model and Financial forecasts. The principal market trends are explained into 3 main categories: 1. Sourcing: Exports from Colombia to the EU in organic food grew from 2019 to 2020 by 35% (European Commission) meaning almost 28.000 additional tons per year. 2. Consumption: the imports of Spain for the frozen fruit market have an average annual growth between 2012 and 2016 of 7,5% jumping from 219.000 MUSD to 291.000 MUSD in those years. (Zambrano Achi and Pozo Burgos). 3. SOM: Initially Amazonas Eco will focus in Cataluña, therefore the market size is given by the population size and the average price and consumption of nectars and fresh juices and soft drinks. Combined the total expected market size would be 75 MEUR (“Últimos datos de consumo alimentario”). After defining a reachable scope in a SOM and Colombia's production capacity the company expects sales of 100 tons/year with an income of 1.2 MEUR. The Operational model is build under 3 main pillars: Farmers, Pulp fruit producer in Colombia, then imports to Spain followed by storage in a warehouse and distributed through a third part logistics service provider reaching Organic markets (preferred channel of main segment) and consumers. Financial model is done by identifying needed assets and operational expenses using marketing analysis to defined expected sales and required inventory. With this financial statements are build for 3 years followed by Net present Value exercise and break even point. This company will request 390,000 EUR of equity. According to the assumptions the NPV of the project is positive therefore, it is decided to go forward with it. The IRR is 15% meaning that NPV will be negative when the cost of capital is higher than this. Break Even point is reachable at 75.500 kg in one year keeping the cost structure. Statement of financial positioning, comprehensive income statement and cash flow statement are built under a conservative model with the assumptions given above where an organic growth is expected for this business holding positive income and cash flow since year 1.

Grandes imperios de todos los tiempos. Egipto. Tierra de dioses y faraones. Macedonia. El sueño imperial del gran Alejandro Magno. Roma. La ciudad que conquistó Occidente.

La inquisición Española.