Abstract: The amygdala is a key hub for the acquisition, storage and extinction of fear memories, which are important in adaptive behaviors. The intercalated cell clusters (ITCs) are groups of inhibitory cells within the amygdaloid complex that have been recently shown to play an important role in fear-related states, especially in the context of fear extinction. Apart from the canonical view that points ITCs as feedforward and feedback inhibitors between the input and output stations towards motor centers, it has been starting to suggest that they could have diverse outputs to different regions beyond the amygdaloid complex. Although some preliminary studies have given some indications of this potential new role of the ITCs, indicating an increase in the complexity of their function in fear behavior and emotional processing, very little is still known. In this thesis, two ITC clusters –lateral and dorsomedial– are the object of the study and two main questions are addressed: (1) Do lateral and dorsomedial ITCs (latITCs and dmITCs) extend long-range projections towards the non-lemniscal (NL) thalamus and the dopaminergic (DA) midbrain? If yes, are their innervation patterns different from each other across these structures? I evaluated the outward latITCs and dmITCs projections to the NL-thalamic and DA-midbrain subnuclei, using anterograde tracing upon Cre-dependent expression of ChR2-EYFP in FoxP2-Cre transgenic mice and less extensively, using retrograde tracing to confirm the results from the anterograde tracing. With these methodological approaches I showed that latITCs and dmITCs do send long-range projections in a differential fashion towards the distinct examined subnuclei. I also showed that these projections are inhibitory (most likely GABAergic) and also, that to assess the innervation pattern, it is necessary to make either automated counting of the fibers, or measure the general innervation in terms of at least two variables–area coverage and fibers’ density– that indirectly provide a more comprehensive innervation index. Resumen: La amígdala es un centro fundamental en la adquisición, almacenamiento y extinción de memorias de miedo, que son importantes para los comportamientos adaptativos. Los grupos de células intercaladas (ITCs) se localizan del complejo de la amígdala, y la regulación inhibitoria sobre ésta, ha demostrado demostrado tener un papel importante en los estados relacionados con el miedo, especialmente en el contexto de la extinción. Aparte de la visión canónica que señala a las ITCs como inhibidores retroalimentadores y proalimentadores entre las estaciones de input y output hacia los centros motores, se ha empezado a sugerir que podrían tener diversas salidas hacia diferentes regiones más allá del complejo de la amígdala. A pesar de que algunos estudios preliminares han dado algunos indicios que soportan este nuevo rol de las ITCs, indicando un aumento de la complejidad de su función en el comportamiento del miedo y el procesamiento emocional, actualmente se conoce muy poco sobre este rol extendido. En esta tesis, dos grupos de células intercaladas diferentes -lateral y dorsomedial- son objeto de estudio y se abordan dos cuestiones principales (1) ¿Los ITCs laterales y dorsomediales (latITCs y dmITCs) extienden proyecciones extendidas hacia núcleos no lemniscales del tálamo (NL) y el cerebro medio dopaminérgico (DA)? En caso de hacerlo, ¿se presenta un patrón inervación diferencial hacia estas estructuras? Para responder esto, he evaluado las proyecciones de los grupos latITCs y dmITCs hacia múltiples subnúcleos del tálamo no lemniscal y del mesencéfalo dopaminérgico, utilizando el trazado viral anterógrado tras la expresión de ChR2-EYFP, que es dependiente del sistema Cre, en ratones transgénicos FoxP2-Cre y, de forma menos extensa, utilizando el trazado retrógrado para confirmar los resultados del trazado anterógrado. Con estos enfoques metodológicos me fue posible demostrar que los grupos de latITCs y dmITCs envían proyecciones extendidas hacia los distintos subnúcleos examinados, de forma diferencial. También demostré que estas proyecciones son inhibitorias (muy probablemente GABAérgicas) y también, que para evaluar el patrón de inervación, es necesario hacer un recuento automatizado de las fibras (por medio de un algoritmo), o medir la inervación general en términos de al menos dos variables -cobertura de área y densidad de fibras- que de forma indirecta, proporcionan un índice de inervación más completo.

Resumen: El síndrome Cornelia de Lange (SCdL) es un desorden congénito del desarrollo, que cursa con dismorfia facial, retraso de crecimiento y psicomotor, reducción de las extremidades, hirsutismo y afectación variable de otros aparatos o sistemas. Tiene una prevalencia baja estimándose en 1 de cada 15000 nacidos vivos, por lo que ha sido considerado como una enfermedad rara. Se conocen cinco genes causales (NIPBL , SMC1A, SMC3, HDAC8 y RAD21) que codifican proteínas reguladoras y estructurales del complejo de cohesinas. La ausencia de diagnóstico en cerca del 30% de los pacientes y la gran variabilidad fenotípica, ha sugerido la existencia de otros genes responsables, y quizás también la implicación de otros mecanismos moleculares. El reciente descubrimiento de que NIPBL podía actuar como una proteína remodeladora de la cromatina, ha hecho proponer que el SCdL debería ser considerado más un Desorden de la Cromatina que una Cohesinopatía. El objetivo general de esta memoria ha sido establecer nuevas correlaciones genotipofenotipo dentro del espectro del Síndrome Cornelia de Lange. Para ello se han estudiado casos atípicos que, muchas veces, tenían alteraciones moleculares únicas. Todo ello ha servido para buscar una explicación a la gran heterogeneidad clínica del síndrome. Como método de trabajo se han realizado historias clínicas exhaustivas, acompañadas de exploraciones físicas detalladas y de pruebas complementarias. Asimismo, se han evaluado alteraciones moleculares como variaciones en el número de copias de genes, presencia de mosaicismo somático o coexistencia de más de un síndrome. Además, el uso de nuevas tecnologías como la secuenciación masiva o paneles específicos, ha permitido proponer aproximaciones diagnósticas efectivas y novedosas para estos pacientes. En el primer trabajo se hace una descripción clínica detallada de un paciente portador de una duplicación en el gen SMC1A. A través de estudios como el cariotipo de alta resolución, el HGC y el Western blot, se confirma que la duplicación está incluida dentro de un cromosoma marcador y que produce un aumento de expresión de la proteína. Sin embargo, a pesar de que este gen es uno de los causales del SCdL, la Gestalt del paciente lo aleja de este cuadro y su fenotipo solo ha podido ser considerado como el de una cohesinopatía sin tipificar. En el segundo trabajo, se evalúa a un sujeto con SCdL y mutación en NIPBL, que presenta uno fenotipo nuevo de reducción de extremidades, caracterizado por afectación ipsilateral derecha con agenesia de peroné e hipoplasia de tibia. El estudio por pirosecuenciación en muestras de diferente origen embrionario descarta un posible mosaicismo somático. Además, la utilización de HCG y la secuenciación masiva confirman la falta de implicación de otros genes causales. Estos hallazgos amplían nuestro conocimiento sobre los defectos de reducción que pueden acompañar al síndrome. En el tercer trabajo se describe como gracias a las nuevas técnicas de secuenciación masiva se diagnóstica un paciente con SCdL y mosaicismo somático del gen NIPBL. Inicialmente, el paciente fue estudiado mediante secuenciación Sanger con resultado negativo. Sin embargo, el hallazgo de la mutación mediante técnicas de secuenciación masiva, sirvió para reforzar la idea, de que parte de los pacientes no diagnosticados podrían padecer una mutación en estado mosaico, y de que las técnicas más adecuadas para descubrirlo, serían, combinar la secuenciación masiva con el estudio de ADN de células epiteliales de mucosa oral o fibroblastos. En el último trabajo se describe una paciente con SCdL y Síndrome de Turner en estado mosaico. Esta coincidencia y la observación de que el Turner es posterior temporalmente a la mutación de NIPBL, sirve para sugerir la hipótesis, de que las mutaciones del complejo de cohesinas podrían estar relacionadas con alteraciones en el reordenamiento cromosómico.

Abstract: Latin American countries are experiencing a significant increase in the reports of mistreatment that women experience while using the maternity healthcare services, a phenomenon acknowledged as “Obstetric Violence” (OV). The Latin American region is crucial for the recognition of OV, not only because the term OV was originated there, but also because of its particular response to the matter. The present Scoping Review aimed to identify and review the available evidence about the response of Latin American countries to OV. As a result, it was found, firstly, that the emergence of the concept of OV in Latin America demonstrated to be a transformative tool useful to raise awareness about the mistreatment women face when giving birth. This OV concept also positions this problematic as subset of gendered violence and as a type of structural violence, through which the need to address it systemically is highlighted. Secondly, the used categorization of OV appears to be the broadest and more inclusive typology, emphasizing that OV might stem from both intentional and unintentional actions of healthcare professionals, as well as from conditions within healthcare organizations. Moreover, the identified variables that influence the response to OV in Latin America were synthetized into a theoretical framework, which offers insight into how the problem has been addressed until now and subsequently, provides useful lessons for other countries seeking approaches to combat mistreatment of women during childbirth. Lastly, it was determined that, in order to address OV and allow the progression of public policies to become regionally available, a broadened view encompassing a human rights-based approach is necessary. This research allowed to conclude that OV is a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon whose solution requires a multidimensional and multidisciplinary approach. Furthermore, OV should be understood as more than a simple act of mistreatment, but rather be viewed as a set of socially constructed symbolic, and violent, meanings allowing different stakeholders to reframe the abuse and violence that women undergoing childbirth experience as natural, expected, and accepted, reinforcing specific gender dynamics not merely in maternity care but in society overall. Finally, the framework to tackle OV within the human rights approach developed by the author is expected to be advantageous for the development of further research, programs, and policies to prevent OV in Latin America and beyond.

Abstract: Mixed microbial cultures have become a preferred choice of biocatalyst for chain elongation systems due to their ability to convert complex substrates into medium chain carboxylates. However, the complexity of the effects of process parameters on the microbial metabolic networks is a drawback that makes the task of optimizing product selectivity challenging. Here, we studied the effects of small air contaminations on the microbial community dynamics and the product formation in anaerobic bioreactors fed with lactate, acetate and H2/CO2. Two stirred tank reactors and two bubble column reactors were operated with H2/CO2 gas recirculation for 139 and 116 days, respectively, at pH 6.0 and 32°C with a hydraulic retention time of 14 days. One reactor of each type had periods with air contamination (between 97 ± 28 and 474 ± 33 mL O2 L−1 d−1, lasting from 4 to 32 days), while the control reactors were kept anoxic. During air contamination, production of n-caproate and CH4 was strongly inhibited, whereas no clear effect on nbutyrate production was observed. In a period with detectable O2 concentrations that went up to 18%, facultative anaerobes of the genus Rummeliibacillus became predominant and only n-butyrate was produced. However, at low air contamination rates and with O2 below the detection level, Coriobacteriia and Actinobacteria gained a competitive advantage over Clostridia and Methanobacteria, and propionate production rates increased to 0.8–1.8 mmol L−1 d−1 depending on the reactor (control reactors 0.1–0.8 mmol L−1 d−1). Moreover, i-butyrate production was observed, but only when Methanobacteria abundances were low and, consequently, H2 availability was high. After air contamination stopped completely, production of n-caproate and CH4 recovered, with n-caproate production rates of 1.4–1.8 mmol L−1 d−1 (control 0.7–2.1 mmol L−1 d−1). The results underline the importance of keeping strictly anaerobic conditions in fermenters when consistent n-caproate production is the goal. Beyond that, micro-aeration should be further tested as a controllable process parameter to shape the reactor microbiome. When odd-chain carboxylates are desired, further studies can develop strategies for their targeted production by applying micro-aerobic conditions.

Abstract: Botulism is caused by a potent neurotoxin that blocks neuromuscular transmission, resulting in death by asphyxiation. Currently, the therapeutic options are limited and there is no antidote. Here, we harness the structural and trafficking properties of an atoxic derivative of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) to transport a function-blocking single-domain antibody into the neuronal cytosol where it can inhibit BoNT serotype A (BoNT/A1) molecular toxicity. Post-symptomatic treatment relieved toxic signs of botulism and rescued mice, guinea pigs, and nonhuman primates after lethal BoNT/A1 challenge. This platform might enable delivery of antibodies and other protein-based therapeutics to previously inaccessible intraneuronal targets. Resumen: El botulismo es causado por una potente neurotoxina que bloquea la transmisión neuromuscular, provocando la muerte por asfixiamiento. Actualmente, las opciones de tratamiento son limitadas y no existe un antídoto. En este artículo aprovechamos las propiedades estructurales y de tráfico neuronal de un derivado atóxico de la neurotoxina botulínica (BoNT) para transportar un anticuerpo que bloquea la función al citosol neuronal, donde puede inhibir la toxicidad molecular del serotipo A de la BoNT (BoNT /A1). El tratamiento post-sintomático alivió los signos tóxicos del botulismo y rescató de la muerte a ratones, conejillos de indias y primates no humanos después de la exposición letal a BoNT / A1. Esta plataforma podría permitir la administración de anticuerpos y otros terapéuticos basados en proteínas a blancos intraneuronales que previamente eran inaccesibles.

Abstract: The disorders caused by mutations in genes encoding subunits and accessory proteins of cohesin complex are collectively termed as cohesinopathies. The best known cohesinopathy is Cornelia de Lange Syndrome (CdLS), which is a multisystem developmental disorder characterized by facial dysmorphism, limb malformations, growth and cognitive impairment. Mutations in five genes, encoding subunits of the cohesin complex (SMC1A, SMC3, RAD21) and its regulators (NIPBL, HDAC8), are responsible for ∼70% of CdLS cases. We describe a 16-year-old boy with facial dysmorphism, growth retardation, intellectual disability, hirsutism and small hands, who has a small Supernumerary Marker Chromosome (sSMC) present in mosaic form. sSMC is composed of two duplicated segments encompassing 17 genes including SMC1A gene, at the regions Xp11.22 and Xp11.21q11.1. Clinical comparison between our patient with a previously reported individual with a SMC1A duplication and four male carriers of similar sSMC reported in databases, suggest that they all share clinical features related to cohesinopathies. Although our patient does not have the classical CdLS craniofacial phenotype, he has pre and postnatal growth retardation, intellectual disability and mild musculoskeletal anomalies, features commonly seen in patients with cohesinopathies.

Abstract: Cornelia de Lange Syndrome (CdLS) is a congenital autosomal dominant (NIPBL, SMC3 and RAD21) or Xlinked (SMC1A and HDAC8) disorder characterized by facial dysmorphism, pre and postnatal growth retardation, developmental delay and/or intellectual disability, and multiorgan involvement. Musculoskeletal malformations are usually bilateral and affect mainly the upper limbs; the range goes from brachyclinodactyly to severe reduction defects. Instead lower extremities are usually less and mildly involved. Here, we report on a 3-year-old Senegalese boy with typical craniofacial CdLS features, pre and postnatal growth retardation, atrial septal defect, developmental delay and right ipsilateral limb malformations, consistent with oligodactyly of the 3rd and 4th fingers, tibial agenesis and fibula hypoplasia. Exome sequencing and Sanger sequencing showed a novel missense mutation in NIPBL gene (c.6647A>G; p.(Tyr2216Cys)), which affects a conserved residue located within NIPBL HEAT repeat elements. Pyrosequencing analysis of NIPBL gene, disclosed similar levels of wild-type and mutated alleles in DNA and RNA samples from all tissues analyzed (oral mucosa epithelial cells, peripheral blood leukocytes and fibroblasts). These findings indicated the absence of somatic mosaicism, despite of the segmental asymmetry of the limbs, and confirmed biallelic expression for NIPBL transcripts, respectively. Additionally, conditions like Split-hand/foot malformation with long-bone deficiency secondary to duplication of BHLHA9 gene have been ruled out by the array-CGH and MLPA analysis. To our knowledge, this is the first CdLS patient described with major ipsilateral malformations of both the upper and lower extremities, that even though this finding could be due to a random event, expands the spectrum of limb reduction defects in CdLS.

Abstract: Seasonal influenza is an infectious disease of multi-causal etiology and a major cause of mortality worldwide that has been associated with environmental factors. In the attempt to model and predict future outbreaks of seasonal influenza with multiple environmental factors, we face the challenge of increased dimensionality that makes the models more complex and unstable. In this paper, we propose a nowcasting and forecasting framework that compares the theoretical approaches of Single Environmental Factor and Multiple Environmental Factors. We introduce seven solutions to minimize the weaknesses associated with the increased dimensionality when predicting seasonal influenza activity levels using multiple environmental factors as external proxies. Our work provides evidence that using dimensionality reduction techniques as a strategy to combine multiple datasets improves seasonal influenza forecasting without the penalization of increased dimensionality.

Abstract: Objective: Determine the population prevalence and trends of cleft lip and / or palate (CL/P) by department for Colombia in the period 2009 - 2015. Methods: Prevalence study based on Individual Registry of Health Services in general population from 2009 to 2015. All people diagnosed with CL/P were included for all ages, type of diagnosis and any type of health services in the mentioned period. The prevalence rate was calculated by period and point for each year, for each department and according to the type of cleft. Stationarity on time series was evaluated using (Dickey-Fuller) and (Phillips-Perron), the trends and prevalence ratios were calculated using Poisson regression. Results: 15,225 people with CL/P were identified, where 53.3% were men. The national period prevalence of CL/P is 3.37 per 10 000 (IC95%: 3.3-3.4) with upward trend (PR = 1.34 95% CI: 1.0 - 1.8 p = 0.05) and non-stationary behavior. The national period prevalence of CL is 0.93 per 10 000, CP 1.17 per 10 000 and CLP 1.26 per 10 000, where CLP is sub classify into CLPu (0.83 per 10 000), and CLPb (0.43 per 10 000). At the departmental level, the highest CL/P prevalence is Guaviare (11.2 95% CI: 8.6 – 14.2), followed by Guainía (8.4 95% CI:5.4 – 12.2) and the lowest Quindío (0.49 95% CI: 0.3 – 0.7) Conclusions: In Colombia, the national period prevalence of CL/P is 3.37 per 10 000 with upward trend at national level indicates an increase on prevalence from 2009 to 2015.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the population prevalence and birth prevalence of oral clefts in Colombia from 2009 to 2017. Methods: A cross-sectional study using information from the National Administrative Records of Colombia. The data came from 2 types of administrative records (Surveillance System and the Individual Registry of Service Provision) and the oral health national survey. Population prevalence and birth prevalence by type of cleft lip and/or cleft (CL/P) ratios were calculated using Poisson distribution for count data and to assess stationary tests on time series (Dickey-Fuller) and (Phillips-Perron) was used. Results: Population prevalence in Colombia was 3.27 per 10 000 inhabitants (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.21-3.32) and birth prevalence was 6.0 per 10 000 live births (95% CI, 5.67-6.35). Bogot´a have the highest population prevalence with CL/P. In the analysis of trends for the prevalence proportion by type of clefts in newborn babies with cleft, it was observed that the highest proportion was for babies with CLP. Cleft lip (CL) has increased from 17.4% in 2014 to 34.2% in 2017, cleft palate (CP) has decreased from 32.9% to 20.2%; and CLP changed from 49.6% to 45.5% in the same period. Conclusions: The population prevalence was 3.27 per 10 000 inhabitants. Births prevalence was 6.0 per 10 000 live births, and Orinoquia and Amazonia have higher rates than the national average. The administrative registers are adequate systems to know the behavior of oral clefts. The CL/P had a nonstationary trend during the period 2014 to 2017.