Nuestra vida depende de la alimentación sana, y por lo tanto tenemos derecho a ella según lo promulga la constitución colombiana de 1.991: los niños, las niñas y los jóvenes son sujetos de derecho en materia de alimentación. La normatividad internacional también reconoce el derecho humano a una alimentación adecuada, el cual incluye el derecho a no pasar hambre, a un acceso seguro de agua potable, a un acceso a recursos, incluyendo recursos eléctricos o gas para cocinar y reducir el consumo de leña con su efecto sobre la deforestación, también incluye el derecho a un alto estándar de salud mental y física. El mundo ha reconocido que los derechos humanos son universales, indivisibles, interconectados, e interdependientes. Para que el derecho a la alimentación sea completamente realizado, son indispensables los derechos humanos a trabajar y recibir salarios que contribuyan a un estándar de vida adecuado, a un ambiente sano y seguro, a no ser discriminados por motivos de sexo, raza, o cualquier otra condición, a la igualdad entre hombre y mujer. Incluye así mismo los derechos de los niños a un ambiente apropiado para un desarrollo físico y mental, a una educación y acceso a la información, a un seguro social, al desarrollo, a la paz, y a disfrutar de los beneficios del progreso científico.

As inundações podem ter um grande impacto na saúde das populações. Doenças produzidas pela exposição direta ou indireta às águas, podem resultar em surtos de doenças gastrointestinais, infecções respiratórias, leptospirose entre outras. Já que os cenários de mudança climática predizem o aumento na frequência e severidade das inundações devido ao aquecimento global, é necessário ter claridade nos impactos gerados sobre a saúde humana como reflexo dos efeitos combinados das mudanças climáticas sobre os ecossistemas, o sistema econômico e o sistema social. A pesquisa visa analisar a vulnerabilidade da população do município de São Paulo às doenças infecciosas relacionadas com inundações. O processo tem como fio condutor o modelo de avaliação da vulnerabilidade conhecido como modelo de vulnerabilidade expandida. Dez variáveis consideradas como representativas para o município de São Paulo, foram escolhidas para a análise da vulnerabilidade social, correlacionadas e analisadas dentro da unidade espacial bacia hidrográfica para o ano 2010, mediante a análise de componentes principais. Bases de dados de precipitação da Rede Telemétrica de Pluviômetros de Superfície do Departamento de Águas e Energia Elétrica (DAAE), foram os dados usados para a avaliação dos níveis de precipitação. Adicionalmente, as estatísticas das bases de dados de Autorização de Internação Hospitalar do Sistema Universal de Saúde (AIH/SUS) foram usadas para a avaliação das variáveis epidemiológicas. Os resultados mostram que a vulnerabilidade social aumenta na direção centro-periferia e que as aglomerações de valores altos, evidentemente mais abundantes do que as aglomerações de valores baixos, aparecem nas bacias de vulnerabilidades sociais significativamente altas. Las inundaciones pueden tener un gran impacto sobre la salud de las poblaciones humanas. Las enfermedades producidas por la exposición directa o indirecta a agua contaminada, puede resultar en brotes de enfermedades gastrointestinales, infecciones respiratorias y Leptospirosis entre otras. Debido a que los escenarios de cambio climático predicen el aumento en la frecuencia y severidad de las inundaciones resultado del calentamiento global, es necesario tener claridad de los impactos generados sobre la salud humana que reflejan los efectos combinados de estos cambios ambientales sobre los ecosistemas, el sistema económico y el sistema social. Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo analizar la vulnerabilidad de la población del municipio de Sao Paulo a enfermedades infecciosas relacionadas con inundaciones. El proceso tuvo como hilo conductor el modelo de evaluación de la vulnerabilidad conocido como modelo de vulnerabilidad expandida. Diez variables consideradas como representativas para el municipio, fueron escogidas para el análisis de la vulnerabilidad social por cuenca hidrográfica para el año 2010. El análisis final de la vulnerabilidad consistió en la correlación y análisis de componentes principales. Fueron utilizados datos de la red telemétrica de pluviómetros de superficie del departamento de aguas y energía eléctrica (DAAE), para analizar los niveles de precipitación. Adicionalmente, las estadísticas de las bases de datos de Autorizaciones de Hospitalización del Sistema Universal de Salud (AIH/SUS) fueron usadas para la evaluación de las variables epidemiológicas. Los resultados muestran que la vulnerabilidad social dentro del municipio aumenta en la dirección centro-periferia y que las aglomeraciones de valores altos, evidentemente más abundantes que las aglomeraciones de valores bajos, aparecen en las cuencas hidrográficas con vulnerabilidades sociales altamente significativas.

Background Retinopathy of prematurity is the major cause of blindness in children in Colombia. This cause of childhood blindness is irreversible when stablished, but 100% preventable with the adequate strategies put in place. This raises important questions concerning strategies to reduce the incidence of blindness as a result of ROP, which should ensure that all infants who are at risk of blinding ROP are examined in screening programmes. Aim The aim was to collect data in the neonatal intensive care units. This was used to evaluate the existing human and material resources for preventing, screening and treating ROP and rehabilitation of children suffering from ROP. The data helped to do an analysis of gaps in the service and allowed to present a proposal for a programme to prevent blindness due to ROP in the cities of Manizales, Pereira and Armenia, Colombia. Methods 7 NICUs were visited in the three cities. The study collected quantitative data on neonatal intensive care units, admission and survival of premature babies during 2010, human resources and infrastructure and data on knowledge of the Colombian guidelines on ROP. Results The survival rates vary according to the provider. They are higher in the private sector, and lower in the public sector. Overall, the available data allowed us to estimate that there are approximately 45,000 births per year (2010) in the region (95% occur in hospital) and 1.8% of all the births are less than 2,000g. Therefore, in the region, 810 babies per year weighing less than 2,000g are at risk of developing any type of ROP. The number of places, ventilators and monitors is sufficient. Staffing is adequate in the private NICUs, with a shortage of neonatologists in the public NICUs. The number of nurses monitoring babies is universally adequate, but the lack of knowledge in controlling risk factors of developing ROP such as monitoring oxygen in a constraint. An ROP screening programme is not available in public NICUs and in some of the mixed providers. The Kangaroo Mother programme lack of screening for ROP. Conclusions The unstable health system has allowed (i) unsustainable NICUs and programmes for ROP (ii) If available, programmes running without being monitored or evaluated, and, (iii) no screening in public and some mixed NICUs in Manizales, Pereira and Armenia. (iv) no screening for ROP in the Kangaroo Mother Programe As access and survival rates improve in the NICUS of these cities, ROP is likely to continue to be a significant cause of blindness in the region, despite the progress that has been achieved with the 2010 Colombian guidelines for screening and treating ROP. Recommendations The results suggest that the prevention of blinding ROP is a complex task in Colombia that requires concomitant strategies to be put in place: Firstly, national policies in screening for ROP and oxygen delivery for the babies in the NICUs are needed. Secondly, as a primary preventive strategy, training nurses in the NICUs to control and monitor the delivery of oxygen; as a secondary preventive strategy, ROP programmes offered to the public, mixed, private NICUs and to the Kangaro Mother Programme; as a tertiary strategy, rehabilitation providing a low vision centre for these children Thirdly, running ROP programmes need to be monitored and evaluated.

Physical activity promotion (PAP) has reached policy agendas worldwide due to the social and economic burden that non-communicable diseases have generated. Colombia is one of the countries that have taken the challenge of promoting healthy lifestyles in order to reduce this burden and in addition, take advantage of other benefits that promoting this healthy lifestyle brings. Although some research has been done on the field, no studies related to the local government contribution were found. The local government plays a crucial role in PAP, considering that it has a great influence on the physical and social environment of a city and consequently in the individual behavior of its citizens. Additionally, it has a great responsibility concerning public health, social and economic development and environmental sustainability, aspects that are related to PAP. The present research, aims to provide a general overview on the current state of PAP in the Municipal Sport Authorities (MSAs) of one department of Colombia. In this sense, it is important to highlight that the sport sector has had a major role in PAP in the country and the department. Hence, structured interviews were conducted among heads of the MSAs of the 14 municipalities of the department and development plans were analyzed. Using this data, two main aspects were studied in order to achieve the research aim: the current PAP interventions and the conditions to promote physical activity (PA) in the department. Results indicate that the current PAP interventions have both strengths and weaknesses. Among the most important aspects, it was noticed that PAP in Risaralda has neglected important environmental determinants for PA behavior. PAP has been oriented from an “anthropic” perspective (targeting the individual). However, this seems to have had a positive effect on PA levels in the department. Concerning the conditions to promote PA, there are important findings related to the knowledge and skills of policy-makers and the management process used to develop the interventions. Some of the weaknesses found in the interventions might be related to the conditions to develop them. Recommendations to MSAs and for further research are given.

A literature review disclosed that even under very strict caries preventive control, in young Swedish people many initial approximal lesions slowly progress. A study was performed to investigate if the same trend could be seen in young Danish adults. In 1996 a group of Danish military conscripts were investigated clinically and radiographically. Based on the radiographs, one lesion with radiolucency up to one third in the dentine was randomly selected from each conscript. Contact was established with these former conscripts in 2002 and radiographs taken around 2002 were used to investigate the state of the selected lesions in terms of regression, stabilization or progression. It was observed that about 60% of the selected lesions had progressed during the 5 to 6 year period. Therefore there was a need to look for other preventive measures than those traditionally used in a Danish context, such as instructions in flossing and local application of fluoride. Looking through the literature, it was realized that sealing of occlusal lesions was highly effective but this procedure was not used on approximal surfaces. The next step was to investigate if it was technically possible to seal approximal lesions and if so what material should be used. A laboratory study was conducted in which 6 dental materials were compared in relation to: their handling, presence at the surface of the lesion, and ability to penetrate into a lesion. Based on that study Gluma One Bond® (Heraeus Kulzer) was selected to be used in further studies. The final step was an 18-month clinical investigation to evaluate the effect of sealing approximal lesions. About 80 young adults from Denmark and Colombia participated in this investigation; each had at least 2 initial approximal lesions. One lesion was selected for sealing; the other one acted as control. Baseline radiographs were taken by means of special equipment so new radiographs could be taken in the same position after 18 months. The sealing procedure was performed in accordance with the guideline designed in the laboratory study. The patient was instructed to floss all sealed and non-sealed approximal lesions. Radiographs were used to assess caries progression in the test and control lesions in three ways: by comparing baseline with final scoring of the lesions on the individual conventional radiographs, by reading the conventional radiographs as pairs and finally using subtraction radiography of digitized images. The examiner was blind to lesion type (test or control) for all comparisons and also blind to whether radiographs were baseline or follow up in the case of examinations of the single radiographs and paired comparison. Repeat assessment of the radiographs was conducted on 20% of the radiographs and the subtraction images. For the paired comparison of radiographs and subtraction radiography assessment significantly more control lesions progressed (47.2%; 85%) than test lesions (22.2%; 43%) (P-values<0.05). For the independent examination of the radiographs a similar pattern was seen but the difference between the two groups was not statistically significant (P=0.06). In conclusion, many approximal lesions seemed to progress on young adults irrespective of the preventive regime they were advised to take. This study has developed and investigated a technique for sealing early approximal lesions which seems to be more effective at preventing lesion progression than conventional interventions such as brushing and flossing. There is a need however, for defining more precisely criteria at selecting lesions to be sealed; for developing better materials in terms of better penetration skill and that they stay there, and for clinical investigations which evaluate the long term effect of sealing the approximal lesions.

Zanahoria-Daucus carota

Pregnancy during adolescence is a worldwide public health concern. In developing countries, 14 million adolescents give birth each year, which accounts for 90% of all worldwide pregnancies. The proportion of adolescent women aged 10-19 whom have been pregnant in Mitú, Colombia is of approximately 25%, in comparison to 19.5% at the national level. This report aims to review the effectiveness and identifying best practice of adolescent pregnancy interventions in low and middle income countries and use formative research to make specific recommendations for policy and practice to prevent adolescent pregnancy in Mitú, Colombia. EMBASE, Medline, CINHAL, Cochrane library, GLOBAL HEALTH, ADOLEC, Popline, LILACS and REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH LIBRARY were searched to identify studies examining adolescent pregnancy prevention interventions in developing countries. GOOGLE was searched to identify grey literature. Five semi-structured interviews were also conducted with key service providers in the field of Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health in Mitú to explore the needs of the region in regards to adolescent pregnancy prevention and the barriers and facilitators for programme implementation. The literature review found that adolescent pregnancy prevention interventions in developing countries had a positive impact on the knowledge of pregnancy prevention and may contribute to the delay of sexual initiation. However, impact on the use of contraceptive methods and reduction of adolescent pregnancy inconclusive. Interviews revealed key societal, familial and individual factors that were viewed to be linked to adolescent pregnancy in Mitú. Relationships between military personnel and young women appeared to be an important factor in high teenage pregnancy rates. Barriers for the adequate implementation and continuation of programmes included lack of political commitment, lack of financial, human and material resources and lack of inter-institutional collaboration, the high rate of staff turnover and the lack of monitoring programmes. Only few facilitators were mentioned that consisted mainly in the willing of both adolescent and military to collaborate in the implementation of adolescent pregnancy prevention interventions. In conclusion, evidence suggests that adolescent pregnancy prevention strategies are effective in increasing knowledge of pregnancy and might delay sexual initiation in low and middle-income countries. Features of effective programmes were identified and discussed and are important in designing and developing new strategies. However, cultural, environmental and social barriers need to be addressed through political commitment and inter-institutional collaboration in order to develop effective interventions for pregnancy prevention in Mitú.

Mowinga es un proyecto de impacto social que busca desarrollar una compañía dedicada a la producción y comercialización de productos 100% orgánicos a base de una planta llamada Moringa cuyas hojas y rama contienen múltiples nutrientes y propiedades alimenticias que le permiten a sus consumidores tener una alimentación balanceada. Este proyecto busca ser implementado en la región Caribe en donde se ve la problemática con la nutrición de los niños de bajo recursos y Mowinga puede significar la solución de raíz a ese impacto social que buscará darle solución a la poca y mala alimentación de dichos niños. También se busca llegar a las nuevas tendencias a nivel mundial sobre la "onda fit" en donde nuestros potenciales clientes buscarán con nuestros productos mejorar su estilo de vida y lograr ser saludables. Nuestro producto será Polvo de Hojas de Moringa Orgánico 100% puro, ideal para ser consumido en ensaladas, infusiones, sopas o con diferentes tipos de bebidas, para todo el público que busca beneficios. generales de salud y bienestar y será comercializado en las siguientes presentaciones: Caja moringa en polvo x 20 sachets x 200 gr Tarro de 90 cápsulas de moringa x 50 gr Sobre sellado moringa en polvo 200 gr

In 2007, Mexico City legalized abortion in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. By doing so, it became the first and only state in Mexico where abortion on demand is legal. In this paper, I use this natural experiment to estimate the effects of abortion legalization on child and maternal health. I perform Difference-In-Differences estimates using information from all births and deaths occurred between 2002 and 2012. My findings suggest that the change in the abortion legislation in Mexico City reduced the Infant Mortality Rate and the Under 5 Mortality Rate by approximately 2.3 and 2.4 deaths per 1,000 live births, respectively. Moreover, for the Maternal Mortality Rate I find that the estimations range from -5.49 to -6 deaths per 100,000 live births. These results are validated by the use of a more accurate control group generated by the Synthetic Control Method. To the best of my knowledge, this if the first paper that attempts to examine the effects of abortion legalization in Mexico City on child health. En el 2007, Ciudad de México legalizó el aborto en las 12 primeras semanas de gestación. Al hacerlo, se convirtió en el primero y único estado del país en donde el aborto voluntario es legal. En este artículo utilizo este experimento natural para estimar los efectos de la legalización del aborto en la salud materno infantil. Realizo estimaciones de Diferencias en Diferencias utilizando información de todos los nacimientos y muertes ocurridos entre 2002 y 2012. Mis hallazgos sugieren que el cambio en la legislación relativa el aborto en la Ciudad de México redujo la tasa de mortalidad Infantil y la tasa de mortalidad en menores de 5 años en aproximadamente 2.3 y 2.4 muertes por cada 1.000 nacidos vivos, respectivamente. Además, para la tasa de mortalidad materna, encuentro que las estimaciones oscilan entre -5,49 y -6 muertes por 100.000 nacidos vivos. Estos resultados se validan mediante el uso de un grupo de control más preciso, utilizando la metodología de control sintético. Según mi conocimiento, este es el primer artículo que intenta examinar los efectos de la legalización del aborto en la Ciudad de México sobre la salud infantil.

Waterborne diseases are transmitted by the faecal-oral route when water contaminated with faeces is ingested. Cryptosporidiosis is one of these diseases and is caused by one of the most widespread enteric parasites in the world; Cryptosporidium. To reduce the waterborne diseases, domestic wastewater needs to be treated sufficiently to reduce its pathogenic content. One of the recently introduced technologies for wastewater treatment is Aerobic Granular Sludge (AGS). AGS has proven to produce effluents with high chemical quality standards. However, little is known regarding the pathogen removal efficiencies or their removal mechanisms. In addition, there is a worldwide need to treat domestic wastewater appropriately to reduce pathogens causing waterborne diseases. The removal efficiencies and fate of some pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium, have not been studied in detail within wastewater treatment processes. Indicator microorganisms such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), have been used to understand the removal mechanisms and fate of pathogens in wastewater. However, it was found there is a miscorrelation between indicators and pathogens, and therefore there is a need for studies with pathogens themselves. Due to these reasons, this research aimed to develop a fluorescent staining method for E. coli and Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) oocysts to allow their detection in AGS batch reactors, and evaluate the fate of fluorescently stained E. coli and C. parvum in these reactors. Pre-staining of E. coli and C. parvum was carried out using two fluorescent stains: dsGreen and SYBR. Experiments were carried out to test different pre-staining conditions. The stains were serial diluted, TWEEN was used to determine if it improved the staining, and the prestained microorganisms were incubated at 4 ºC, room temperature and 37 ºC. Two different batch reactors, 250 mL and 2 mL, were set up with AGS and were spiked with pre-stained microorganisms. Both reactors were run for 120 mins and sludge samples were collected and analysed using fluorescent microscopy. The filtered supernatant samples from the 250 mL were also analysed using the fluorescent microscope and the fluorescent cell count method. The best staining conditions for E. coli and C. parvum oocysts with dsGreen proved to be: 1,000x dilution of dye, incubation of stained microorganisms at room temperature for 15 mins and no need of TWEEN. SYBR photobleached rapidly and was therefore not an appropriate stain for this research. With the experiments in batch reactors, the fluorescent cell count method proved to be a generic and faster quantitative alternative to estimate E. coli concentrations in filtered supernatant samples than the E. coli agar plate method. In addition, it was qualitatively confirmed that fluorescently stained E. coli was removed by the predation of different species of protozoa. However, no conclusive results regarding protozoan predation of C. parvum oocysts were observed. Resumen: Las enfermedades transmitidas por el agua se transmiten por la ruta fecal-oral cuando se ingiere agua contaminada con heces. La criptosporidiosis es una de estas enfermedades y es causada por uno de los parásitos entéricos más extendidos del mundo; Cryptosporidium. Para reducir las enfermedades transmitidas por el agua, las aguas residuales domésticas deben tratarse lo suficiente como para reducir su contenido patógeno. Una de las tecnologías recientemente introducidas para el tratamiento de aguas residuales es el lodo granular aeróbico (AGS por sus siglas en inglés). AGS ha demostrado producir efluentes con altos estándares de calidad química. Sin embargo, se sabe poco sobre las eficiencias de eliminación de patógenos o sus mecanismos de eliminación. Además, existe una necesidad mundial de tratar las aguas residuales domésticas de manera adecuada para reducir los patógenos que causan enfermedades transmitidas por el agua. Las eficiencias de eliminación y el destino de algunos patógenos, como el Cryptosporidium, no se han estudiado en detalle en los procesos de tratamiento de aguas residuales. Se han utilizado microorganismos indicadores como Escherichia coli (E. coli) para comprender los mecanismos de eliminación y el destino de los patógenos en las aguas residuales. Sin embargo, se descubrió que existe una mala correlación entre los indicadores y los agentes patógenos y, por lo tanto, es necesario realizar estudios con los mismos agentes patógenos. Debido a estas razones, esta investigación tuvo como objetivo desarrollar un método de tinción fluorescente para E. coli y ooquistes de Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) para permitir su detección en reactores discontinuos de AGS, y evaluar el destino de E. coli y C. parvum teñidos con fluorescencia en estos reactores. La tinción previa de E. coli y C. parvum se llevó a cabo utilizando dos tinciones fluorescentes: dsGreen y SYBR. Se llevaron a cabo experimentos para probar diferentes condiciones de pre-tinción. Las tintas se diluyeron en serie, se utilizó TWEEN para determinar si mejoraba la tinción, y los microorganismos pre-teñidos se incubaron a 4 ºC, temperatura ambiente y 37 ºC. Se prepararon dos reactores discontinuos diferentes, 250 ml y 2 ml, con AGS y se añadieron microorganismos previamente teñidos. Ambos reactores funcionaron durante 120 minutos y las muestras de lodo se recogieron y analizaron usando microscopía fluorescente. Las muestras de sobrenadante filtradas de 250 ml también se analizaron utilizando el microscopio fluorescente y el método de recuento de células fluorescentes. Las mejores condiciones de tinción para la E. coli y los ooquistes de C. parvum con dsGreen demostraron ser: dilución de colorante a 1,000x, incubación de microorganismos teñidos a temperatura ambiente durante 15 minutos y sin necesidad de TWEEN. SYBR se blanqueó rápidamente y, por lo tanto, no fue una tinta adecuada para esta investigación. Con los experimentos en reactores discontinuos, el método de recuento de células fluorescentes demostró ser una alternativa cuantitativa genérica y más rápida para estimar las concentraciones de E. coli en muestras de sobrenadante filtradas que el método de la placa de agar de E. coli. Además, se confirmó cualitativamente que E. coli teñida con fluorescencia se removió por la predación de diferentes especies de protozoos. Sin embargo, no se observaron resultados concluyentes con respecto a la predación de protozoos de los ooquistes de C. parvum.