Abstract: Purpose: The aim of this study is to understand the role performed and the challenges faced by emergent groups and spontaneous volunteers during the response of Covid-19 emergency. Moreover, this study seeks to examine if structural social capital wealth is related or no with spontaneous volunteerism during Covid-19 outbreak. To be able to assess and compare if the variation between bonding, bridging and linking social networks from place to place impact volunteers´ management the study will be conducted in United Kingdom and Colombia. Design/methodology/approach: This study comprises of qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches. A comprehensive literature review was undertaken alongside an online survey with volunteers in Colombia and United Kingdom and online interview. Analyze survey results: Descriptive statistics, t-test and data visualization and qualitative data analysis were implemented to. Findings: Spontaneous volunteerism during Covid-19 was not relate with structural social capital wealth. A centralized management and communication sharing can improve emergency response and volunteers' performance. The more common volunteering activity was food distribution and the biggest challenge was fear of contagion. Practical implications: The author provide insights to improve spontaneous emergency response in the future. In addition, present the excellent opportunity that official organizations are facing to formally work and train spontaneous volunteers. Originality/value: The author introduces a different of social capital and volunteering relationship. Additionally, offer suggestions to improve volunteers´ management from the strengthening of structural social capital.

Abstract: Latin America was in turmoil in 2019. Protests raged across different countries and against governments across the political spectrum. Widespread mobilisation from social organisations denounced corruption and voiced various demands, including greater political freedoms, better and affordable public services, and the urgent need to tackle corruption and inequality in Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Brazil. The region ended the year with unfulfilled promises of a new social pact, and the promise of intensified mobilisations.

Abstract: South Africa remains one of the most unequal countries in the world. The current levels of inequality are the legacy of the segregation and marginalization of the vast majority of its citizenry in every aspect of South Africa’s socio- economic development before and during apartheid. Contemporary inequality literature is unambiguous about the fact that such extremely high levels of inequality are detrimental to a country’s development path and stifle a country’s potential in multiple dimensions (Wilkinson and Pickett 2010). In South Africa, poverty and inequality are often mentioned in the same breath. This elides over important conceptual differences between poverty (measured by incomes at a particular threshold) and inequality (measured by gaps between groups or individuals). Poverty is analysed as an individualized metric, the income level of a person or the level of a multi- dimensional index relative to an income or multidimensional poverty line (for a fuller discussion on poverty in South Africa see chapter 8 of this volume). On the other hand, inequality is a relational concept; one is more or less equal in relation to another (Tilly 1998). As such the analysis of poverty cannot necessarily explain the forces reproducing intergenerational inequality or poverty. Analysing inequality is better suited to unveiling the societal processes driving the provision and allocation of assets, and services and the determinants of well- being, and can better describe the forces reproducing intra-generational and intergenerational inequality. This is the task of this chapter.

Abstract: The promotion of education as a human right became part of the discourse of international aid agencies and banks since the end of WWII. Consequently, studies of development have examined the conditions under which education becomes a driver of socio-economic progress under three theories: “modernization”, “human capital”, and “dependency”. Previous research has not agreed on the impact of education on inequalities and mainly adopted a quantitative approach. This dissertation implements a mixed-methods approach to examine context-specific variables in comparative education with the “dependency” theory. The outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020 generated great losses in human capital accumulation. In Latin America, one of the most unequal regions in the world, the impact of school disruption increased drop-out rates and forced governments to generate measures to mitigate learning losses. This dissertation examines through a comparative analysis to what extent remote learning policies implemented during COVID-19 reduced inequality gaps in Chile and Colombia, with a particular focus on secondary education. Moreover, as intervening variables, it selects two neoliberal characteristics: privatization and government intervention. Colombia and Chile implemented multimodal education policies during COVID-19. However, in Colombia, school closures lasted longer than in Chile. The PISA exam forecast of the World Bank also suggests that education inequality gaps in secondary education increased after the pandemic, with greater inequalities in Colombia. Moreover, the Gini coefficient shows that Colombia has been more unequal than Chile before and after COVID-19. Lastly, the analysis of the intervening variables shows that remote learning policies were unable to reduce inequalities and mainly favoured private institutions and urban areas. Finally, as part of the lessons, this research suggests that the neo-liberal characteristics of both countries marked a difference in the implementation of policies. Moreover, the lack of information incentivised the adoption of good practices that become suitable policy alternatives when adapted to local needs. Lastly, this research evidences the need for LAC to include technological tools in their education systems to respond to future crises.

Resumen: Las restricciones derivadas de la pandemia por el coronavirus 2019 instauraron un contexto prolongado de implementación forzosa de teletrabajo en diversas organizaciones e instituciones. El presente estudio examina el impacto ejercido por la intensidad en la adopción de dicho esquema laboral sobre la satisfacción de los colaboradores del sector de la educación superior. Para ello, se aplicó un instrumento transversal sobre una muestra de 154 colaboradores de una universidad colombiana, cuyos datos fueron analizados mediante un modelamiento de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren la existencia de una asociación significativa entre las variables en cuestión. Se observa además que tanto los individuos mayores de 40 años como aquellos que cuentan con un lugar aislado para teletrabajar tienden a favorecer dicha relación. Abstract: The restrictions derived from the pandemic by the coronavirus 2019 created a prolonged context of forced implementations of telework in several organizations and institutions. This study examines the impact exerted by the intensity of the adoption of this work scheme on the satisfaction of employees in the higher education sector. To do this, the study applies a cross-sectional instrument to a sample of 154 employees of a Colombian university, and the data obtained was subsequently analyzed by structural equation modeling. Results suggest the existence of a significant association between the variables in question. It is also observed that both individuals over 40 years of age and those who have an isolated place to telework tend to favor this relationship.

Abstract: Evidence about the effectiveness of school closures as a measure to control the spread of COVID-19 is controversial. We posit that schools are not an important source of transmission; thus, we analyzed two surveillance methods: a web-based questionnaire and a telephone survey that monitored the impact of the pandemic due to COVID-19 cases in Bogotá, Colombia. We estimated the cumulative incidences for Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) and COVID-19 for each population group. Then, we assessed the differences using the cumulative incidence ratio (CIR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI95%). The ARI incidence among students was 20.1 times higher when estimated from the telephone survey than from the online questionnaire (CIR: 20.1; CI95% 17.11–23.53). Likewise, the ARI incidence among choolteachers was 10 times higher in the telephone survey (CIR: 9.8; CI95% 8.3–11.5). The incidence of COVID-19 among schoolteachers was 4.3 times higher than among students in the online questionnarie (CIR: 4.3, CI95%: 3.8–5.0) and 2.1 times higher in the telephone survey (CIR = 2.1, CI95%: 1.8–2.6), and this behavior was also observed in the general population data. Both methods showed a capacity to detect COVID-19 transmission among students and schoolteachers, but the telephone survey estimates were probably closer to the real incidence rate. Resumen: La evidencia sobre la efectividad del cierre de las instituciones educativas como una medida para controlar la transmisión del COVID-19 es controversial. Nosotros postulamos que los colegios no son una fuente importante de transmisión, por lo tanto, se analizaron dos métodos de vigilancia: un cuestionario en línea y una encuesta telefónica que monitoreaba el impacto causado por los casos de la pandemia de COVID-19 en Bogotá, Colombia. Se estimó las incidencias acumuladas por infección respiratoria aguda (IRA) y COVID-19 para cada grupo poblacional. Posteriormente, se evaluaron las diferencias usando la tasa de incidencias acumuladas (TIA) con intervalos de confianza del 95%. La incidencia de IRA en los estudiantes fue 20.1 veces más alta cuando se estimó a partir de la encuesta telefónica frente al cuestionario en línea (TIA: 20.1; IC95% 17.11–23.53). Igualmente, la incidencia de ARI entre los docentes fue 10 veces más alta en la encuesta telefónica (TIA: 9.8; IC95% 8.3–11.5). La incidencia de COVID-19 en los docentes fue 4.3 veces más alta que la de los estudiantes de acuerdo con el cuestionario en línea (TIA: 4.3, IC95%: 3.8–5.0) y 2.1 veces más alta en la encuesta telefónica (CIR = 2.1, CI95%: 1.8–2.6), y este comportamiento también se observó en los datos de la población general. Ambos métodos de vigilancia mostraron ser capaces de detectar la transmisión del COVID-19 entre los estudiantes y los docentes, pero las estimaciones derivadas de la encuesta telefónica fueron probablemente más cercanas a las tasas de incidencia reales.

Abstract: The urban projects proposed by subsequent administrations from Bogota with thepurpose of solving concerns regarding homeless youth have been developed as aresponse to physical and spatial issues, as well as public health difficulties associated withdrug use. The crisis addressing the current global health emergency proves that theseprojects associate power technologies that seek despacialization trend. Besides studying the problem area previously described, the present article analyzes a series of spatial components adapted to the spatialization for homeless youth exposed to covid-19. Resumen: Los proyectos urbanos propuestos por sucesivas administraciones de Bogotá con el propósito de resolver la problemática de los/as jóvenes habitantes de calle han sido formulados como respuestas a problemas físico-espaciales y de salud pública asociados con el consumo de drogas. La actual coyuntura de emergencia sanitaria global evidencia que estos proyectos vehiculizan tecnologías de poder que procuran el fenómeno de desespacializacion. Además de estudiar la problemática descrita, en el presente artículo se analiza una serie de elementos espaciales adecuados a la espacialización de los/as jóvenes habitantes de calle expuestos al covid-19.

Abstract: Access to food should be considered a stone in the shoe for the food security issues around the world. This phenomenon has been highly studied and contested, but without a clear path to guarantee regular access to affordable and nutritious food for all in familiar contexts. The Covid-19 pandemic marked an exciting but tragic scenario that deepens the gap in the food access capability, especially for the urban poor in developing countries. This study takes place in Cali, one of the main cities in Colombia, intending to identify changes in access to food patterns by citizens from different socioeconomic levels. Moreover, this paper uses an ecological framework to examine the individual, social, physical and macro-level factors that can positively or negatively influence peoples’ behaviours towards accessing food. This research uses a mixed-study methodology. An online survey method and phone interviews were used to gather information regarding availability, physical and economic access and citizen’s engagement in their local food system. One hundred (100) people voluntarily accepted to participate in the study, and each one belonged to one of the three socioeconomic levels: low, middle or high. The results compare food access patterns before and during the sanitary crisis with a particular focus on class. The findings showed that the participants prefer to procure food in supermarkets before and during the pandemic, as they offer better price, closeness, variety and quality of food products. Also, they perceive a generalised increase in food prices. This economic aspect was crucial for most participants as long as income was affected during the crisis, particularly for the urban poor. Even though it was found an essential barrier for food access, no alternative patterns were found other than food donations or lower quantity purchased by low-income dwellers. In contrast, some practices of self-consumption and direct-to-the-producer purchases were implemented by middle and high SLs, but they are still insufficient and individually-based actions. The macro-level food environment has a vital role in shaping food access patterns and do not enable citizens to have a more significant engagement to their local food system. Resumen: El acceso a alimentos debe ser considerado la piedra en el zapato de la problemática de inseguridad alimentaria en el mundo. Este fenómeno ha sido altamente estudiado y controvertido, pero sin un camino claro sobre cómo garantizar acceso regular a alimentos asequibles y nutritivos para los hogares. La pandemia de la Covid-19 se enmarca como un escenario excitante pero trágico, el cual profundiza las brechas ya existentes en la capacidad de acceder a los alimentos, especialmente para la población pobre que reside en las urbes en países en desarrollo. El presente estudio se ubica en Cali, una de las ciudades principales de Colombia, y tuvo como objetivo identificar cambios en los patrones de acceso a alimentos por ciudadanos de diferentes niveles socioeconómicos durante la pandemia de la Covid-19. Así mismo, este estudio utiliza el modelo ecológico para examinar los factores individuales, sociales, físicos y estructurales que inciden positiva o negativamente sobre los comportamientos alrededor del acceso a alimentos antes de, y durante la crisis. Se diseña un estudio mixto, mediante el uso de encuesta cualitativa y entrevistas telefónicas para recolectar información sobre disponibilidad, acceso físico y económico, y sobre dinámicas de involucramiento de los ciudadanos para acceder a sus alimentos más allá de la compra directa. En total fue incluida una población de 100 ciudadanos que voluntariamente aceptaron participar de la investigación, y se logró que pertenecieran a los tres niveles socioeconómicos: bajo, medio y alto. Los resultados comparan los patrones de acceso antes y durante la crisis sanitaria con un enfoque particular en las diferencias de clase social. Los resultados evidencian que los participantes prefieren comprar sus alimentos en supermercados antes y durante la pandemia, debido a que ofrecen mejores precios, cercanía, variedad y calidad de los productos. Otro cambio evidenciado fue la percepción de aumento del precio de los alimentos. Este aspecto económico determinó en gran medida el limitado acceso a alimentos para las poblaciones pobres de la ciudad. A pesar de esta situación, no se encontraron patrones alternativos de acceso a alimentos además de donaciones de alimentos o compra de menor cantidad de alimentos. En contraste, prácticas de autoconsumo y compra directa al productor fueron implementados por participantes de nivel socioeconómico medio y alto, pero siguen siendo acciones insuficientes e individualistas. El ambiente estructural tiene un efecto crucial en moldear los patrones de acceso y limitar la posibilidad de participación directa de los ciudadanos con su sistema alimentario local.

Abstract: By 2020, the UNHCR reported that 4.5 million Venezuelans migrants and refugees have fled their country, which represents the greatest exodus experienced in Latin America and the Caribbean in recent history. Colombia has become the principal host country on account of its geographic, sociological and linguistic proximity. The Venezuelan exodus has urged the Colombian government to develop for the first time immigration policies, which until today remain understudied. This study begins filling this gap by focusing on the institutional and humanitarian responses, their implementation, feasibility and challenges. This explorative qualitative study based on 7 semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders that participate in the assistance of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia, found that subaltern notions of citizenship (blurred membership and neoliberal citizenship) shape the attention for migrants and hinder the effectiveness of migration policies. Furthermore, it was pinpointed that COVID-19 represents an enormous challenge for policymakers as urgent needs of nationals become more important than planning long-term responses for migrants. This paper collects recommendations for the enhancement of the Colombian migration policy. Recommendations include developing a unified criterion in the attention of vulnerable migrants in Colombia (Venezuelans and IDPs), carrying out a national migration census, ensuring the continuity of the special permits and their adherence to a naturalization route, guaranteeing strong measures against xenophobia, and launching a national migration policy. Resumen: Para el 2020, la ACNUR reportó que 4,5 millones de migrantes y refugiados venezolanos han huido de su país. Lo que representa el mayor éxodo vivido en América Latina y el Caribe en la historia reciente. Colombia se ha convertido en el principal país anfitrión por su proximidad geográfica, sociológica y lingüística. El éxodo venezolano ha instado al gobierno colombiano a desarrollar por primera vez políticas migratorias, que hasta el día de hoy siguen siendo poco estudiadas. Este estudio comienza a llenar este vacío enfocándose en las respuestas institucionales y humanitarias, su implementación, viabilidad y desafíos. Este estudio cualitativo exploratorio basado en 7 entrevistas semiestructuradas con diversos actores que participan en la atención de los migrantes venezolanos en Colombia, encontró que las nociones subalternas de ciudadanía (membresía borrosa y ciudadanía neoliberal) configuran la atención a los migrantes y dificultan la efectividad de las políticas migratorias. Además, se señaló que COVID-19 representa un enorme desafío para los responsables de la formulación de políticas, ya que las necesidades urgentes de los nacionales colombianos se vuelven más importantes que la planificación de respuestas a largo plazo para los migrantes. Este trabajo recoge recomendaciones para el mejoramiento de la política migratoria colombiana. Las recomendaciones incluyen desarrollar un criterio unificado en la atención de migrantes vulnerables en Colombia (venezolanos y desplazados internos), realizar un censo migratorio nacional, asegurar la continuidad de los permisos especiales y su adhesión a una ruta de naturalización, garantizar medidas contundentes contra la xenofobia, y poner en marcha una política migratoria nacional.

Abstract: Background: The mechanisms of action of several classes of cardiovascular medications are associated with COVID-19 pathology and have led to conflicting theories about their potential harm or benefits to the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients. However, published systematic reviews have only focused on the effects of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. Objective: to assess the current evidence about the effects of six classes of cardiovascular medications (angiotensin receptor blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, diuretics, calcium channel blockers, β- and α-blockers) on the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients. Search Methods: Systematic searches were conducted at Ovid Medline, Ovid Embase, PubMed, OFSpreprints, MedRxiv, BioRxiv, and LitCovid website to include studies published since the infection outbreak began up to August 2020. The recently updated Ovid Medline expert filter for COVID-19 was used along with validated search filters from previous Cochrane systematic reviews. Additionally, ongoing studies were searched at ClinicalTrials.gov and PROSPERO databases. Selection criteria: English or Spanish observational studies involving minimum 10 participants with confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis and taking ACEI, ARBs, CCBs, diuretics, β- and/or α- blockers were included. Data collection and analysis: The studies were selected based on the inclusion criteria at a title, abstract, and full-text review steps. Main results: 55 observational studies were included involving 780540 confirmed COVID-19 patients. 34 studies obtained consistent evidence that the baseline treatment with neither of the studied cardiovascular medications was associated with: 1) risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2 infection; 2) developing a severe COVID-19 disease; 3) mortality or 4) undergoing clinical complications and poor disease course. In-hospital administration of amlodipine or nifedipine is associated with a lower risk of mortality and mechanical ventilation. Conclusion: most of the current evidence is consistent to suggest that baseline treatments with the studied cardiovascular medications are not associated with worsening clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients; however, the comprehensive analysis and comparison of the data was limited by the great heterogeneity across the studies’ design. More robust evidence is required to overcome the limitations of the current evidence and to properly address the controversies around this research topic. Resumen: Introducción: Los mecanismos de acción de varias clases de medicamentos cardiovasculares se han asociado a la patogénesis de la infección por COVID-19. Esta asociación ha promovido el surgimiento de diferentes teorías relacionadas con los efectos benéficos o perjudiciales de estos medicamentos en los desenlaces clínicos de pacientes diagnosticados con COVID-19. Sin embargo, las revisiones sistemáticas publicadas a la fecha sobre este tema se han enfocado exclusivamente en los efectos de los medicamentos inhibidores del sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona. Objetivo: Evaluar la evidencia sobre los efectos de seis clases de medicamentos cardiovasculares (bloqueadores de los receptores de angiotensina, inhibidores de la enzima de convertidora de angiotensina, diuréticos, bloqueadores de los canales de calcio, bloqueadores beta-adrenérgicos y bloqueadores alfa-adrenérgicos) en los desenlaces clínicos de pacientes con COVID-19. Metodología de búsqueda: Se realizaron búsquedas sistemáticas en Ovid Medline, Ovid Embase, PubMed, OFSpreprints, MedRxiv, BioRxiv, and LitCovid website con el fin de incluir estudios publicados desde el inicio del brote de la infección hasta Agosto de 2020. Se desarrollaron estrategias de búsqueda avanzadas empleando filtros de búsqueda validados como el filtro para COVID-19, desarrollado y actualizado por expertos de Ovid Medline, junto con filtros obtenidos de previas revisiones sistemáticas de Cochrane. Adicionalmente, se realizó una búsqueda de estudios en curso en las bases de datos ClinicalTrials.gov y PROSPERO. Criterios de selección: Estudios observacionales publicados en ingles o español incluyendo mínimo 10 participantes con un diagnóstico confirmado de COVID-19 y en tratamiento con IECA, ARA, BCC, diuréticos, beta-bloqueadores y/o alfa-bloqueadores. Selección y análisis de datos: Los estudios se seleccionaron aplicando los criterios de inclusión en el screening del título, abstract y texto completo. Resultados: Se incluyeron 55 estudios observacionales que involucraron 780540 pacientes con diagnostico confirmado de COVID-19. 34 estudios fueron consistentes al obtener evidencia de que los tratamientos de base con cualquiera de las seis clases de medicamentos cardiovasculares estudiados no se asociaron con 1) mayor riesgo de contraer una infección por SARS-CoV-2; 2) la severidad de la infección por COVID-19; 3) mortalidad o 4) complicaciones clínicas en el curso de la enfermedad. La administración intrahospitalaria de amlodipino o nifedipino puede estar asociada con un menor riesgo de mortalidad y ventilación mecánica en pacientes con COVID-19. Conclusión: La evidencia actual sugiere que los tratamientos de base con IECA, ARA, BCC, diuréticos, beta-bloqueadores y/o alfa-bloqueadores no se asocian con peores desenlaces clínicos en pacientes con COVID-19. Sin embargo, la gran heterogeneidad en el diseño de los estudios limitó el análisis exhaustivo y la comparación de los datos entre los estudios. Evidencia mas robusta que supere estas limitaciones y aborde las controversias generados en torno a este tema de investigación es necesaria.