Abstract: This thesis analyses the Colombian government’s decision-making process that involved international actors during the Havana peace process (2012-2016). The research highlights the influence of international actors in the government’s decisions that worked to end the armed conflict between the government and the FARC-EP in Colombia. In particular, this study raises the following research question: How, and in what way, was the Colombian government’s decision-making process influenced by international actors, especially the presence and actions of the UN, during the Havana peace process? The hypothesis of this research expects that the decision-making of the Colombian government during the Havana peace process had a key political condition of clearly defined involvement from international actors. It focuses on the Colombian Executive branch as the main actor and its relations with other national and international actors. To do so, the research references the theories of Foreign Policy Analysis, including the Governmental Politics Model and the Two-Level Game Model. This thesis provides an in-depth analysis of the Colombian government’s decision-making process that involved UN cooperation by applying an interpretative case study. The research methodology is built on data collection gathered by interviewing a number of high-profile individuals involved in the Havana peace process including members of the Colombian government, members of the former guerrilla FARC-EP, United Nations Officials, and national and international academics and advisors who were involved in the decision-making during the negotiations. The conclusion goes on to argue that the Colombian decision-making process implemented during the negotiations was designed precisely to effectively define the role of international support, which improved the likelihood of success of the final peace agreement. The cooperation of international actors, especially from the UN, built trust between the negotiating parties regarding the sustainability of the negotiations. In addition, the international cooperation promoted institutional and political conditions that were necessary to achieve the final peace agreement. Resumen: Esta tesis analiza el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano que incluyó la participación de actores internacionales en el proceso de paz de La Habana (2012-2016). La investigación destaca la influencia de los actores internacionales en las decisiones gubernamentales que facilitaron la terminación del conflicto armado entre el gobierno y las FARC-EP en Colombia. Particularmente, este estudio responde a la siguiente pregunta de investigación: ¿Cómo y de qué manera el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano fue influenciado por actores internacionales, especialmente la presencia y acción de la ONU durante el proceso de paz de La Habana? La hipótesis de esta investigación argumenta que el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano durante el proceso de paz de La Habana requirió una condición política de tener claramente definidos los límites de la participación de actores internacionales. La investigación enfoca en la rama de poder Ejecutivo colombiano como actor principal y en sus relaciones con otros actores nacionales e internacionales. Para esto, la investigación se basa en teorías de Análisis de Política Exterior, incluyendo el Modelo de Política Gubernamental y el Modelo del Juego de Dos Niveles. Esta tesis proporciona un profundo análisis del proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano que incorporó la cooperación de la ONU, aplicando un estudio de caso interpretativo. La metodología de investigación se fundamenta en la recolección de datos, entrevistando varios individuos de alto nivel involucrados en el proceso de paz colombiano, incluyendo miembros del Gobierno colombiano, miembros de la ex guerrilla de las FARC-EP, funcionarios de las Naciones Unidas, académicos y asesores nacionales e internacionales. La conclusión de la investigación argumenta entonces que el proceso de toma de decisiones colombiano implementado durante las negociaciones se organizó de manera precisa para definir efectivamente el papel del apoyo internacional, que aumentaría la probabilidad de éxito para un acuerdo final de paz. La cooperación de actores internacionales, especialmente de la ONU, creó confianza entre las partes negociadoras en favor de la sostenibilidad de las negociaciones. Adicionalmente, la cooperación internacional promovió condiciones institucionales y políticas que fueron necesarias para alcanzar el acuerdo final de paz.

Abstract: This paper analyzes how changes in political conditions affect distributive politics. We study the case of Colombia, focusing on the strategic allocation of land in relation to the electoral cycle. Relying on over 55.000 municipality-year observations on land allocations, exogenous timing of elections and sociodemographic controls, we show that there is a political land cycle (PLC), and that this cycle is dependent on the local political conditions in place. We analyze the changes in the PLC derived from the implementation of a deep political reform that increased political competition and the fiscal and administrative capacity of the state, doing so heterogeneously across municipalities. We show that the PLC decreased by half after the reform, with this reduction being stronger in municipalities in which political competition and fiscal and administrative capacity increased the most. The heterogeneous reduction in the PLC does not appear to stem from an aggregate weakening of distributive politics, but rather, from a recomposition of the distributive politics portfolio: away from the allocation of private targeted benefits like land, and towards the strategic allocation of public goods. We discuss the incentive and capacity effects explaining this re-composition likely affecting the relative costs and benefits of different types of distributive politics resources. The results evidence the importance of understanding not only the territorial dimension of distributive politics, but also how the specific traits of resources determine distributive politics strategies and their resilience to contextual changes. Resumen: Este artículo analiza cómo los cambios en las condiciones políticas afectan la política distributiva o clientelismo. Estudiamos el caso de Colombia, analizando la asignación estratégica de tierras en relación al ciclo electoral. Basándonos en más de 55.000 observaciones por año y municipio de asignaciones de tierras baldías, y aprovechando las fechas exógenamente determinadas para la realización de elecciones políticas durante los últimos 50 años, mostramos que existe un ciclo político de la tierra (PLC), y que este ciclo depende de las condiciones políticas locales. Luego analizamos los cambios en el PLC derivados de la implementación de una profunda reforma política (la Constitución de 1991) que incrementó la competencia política y la capacidad fiscal y administrativa del Estado, haciéndolo de manera heterogénea entre municipios. Mostramos que el PLC disminuyó a la mitad después de la reforma, con una mayor reducción en los municipios en los que la competencia política y la capacidad fiscal y administrativa aumentaron más. La reducción heterogénea en el PLC no parece provenir de un debilitamiento agregado de las prácticas clientelistas, sino más bien, de una recomposición del portafolio de clientelismo: este pasa de basarse en la asignación de beneficios privados como la tierra, a basarse en la asignación estratégica de bienes públicos. Discutimos los efectos de incentivos y de capacidad que explican esta recomposición del portafolio de clientelismo. Los resultados evidencian la importancia de comprender no solo la dimensión territorial del clientelismo, sino también cómo las características de los recursos a ser usados para clientelismo determinan las dinámicas clientelistas y su resiliencia a cambios contextuales.

Abstract: This paper analyses the world-renowned enforcement pyramid model developed by Ayres and Braithwaite (1992) in their book Responsive regulation. Transcending the deregulation debate and its inherent limitations and assumptions in order to scrutinise from a theoretical perspective its potential effectiveness in enforcing regulation of collaborative platforms. Ayres and Braithwaite (1992) argue that their enforcement model will be effective for all types of regulatees across different industries. By undertaking a literature review of the enforcement pyramid and critically analysing the model, this paper will address the conditions required for its effectiveness by identifying the main assumptions that underpin the theoretical model. Additionally, this paper will uncover the essential characteristics of collaborative platforms and explain why these are different from traditional industries and markets. Afterwards, this work will assess if the conditions required for the effectiveness of the theoretical model are materialised in the concrete situation of the collaborative platforms. The main conclusions of this paper show that the enforcement pyramid may not be as universally applicable as Ayres and Braithwaite present it due to specific circumstances that must be fulfilled for its effectiveness, such as binary and personal relationships between regulators and regulatees, shared understandings regarding regulatory aims and standards, absence of resource constraints, and simple regulatory environments, among others. Furthermore, these specific circumstances and assumptions that condition the effectiveness of the enforcement theory are not fulfilled in the business scheme of collaborative platforms. Therefore, the enforcement pyramid may not be a suitable enforcement model to tackle this new market reality, at least from a theoretical standpoint.

Abstract: The few existing studies on zero deverbal nominalizations (ZNs), in both English and Spanish have left aside the analysis of important attributes such as semantic denotations (e.g. product, events) and syntactic functions (e.g. argument-taking capacity). Consequently, various theoretical postulates regarding the properties and behavior of this kind of non-overt nominalizations need to be verified on a significant sample of empirical data. For such purpose, this computational linguistics study follows Borer [2013]’s distinction of Argument Structure Nominals (ASNs) and Referential Nominals (RNs), categories based on complex event nouns, which inherit the eventive structure of their base verbs, vs. result and simple event nouns that express a rather abstract or concrete result. This distinction is assumed as a classification task trained with two kinds of features (syntactic dependencies and distributional properties) extracted from a novel database of English and Spanish ZNs in sentence context. According to our findings, the highly ambiguous space of the nominal argument structure is better recognised by fine-grained syntactic relations and annotated semantic roles, while referential denotations are more efficiently differentiated with contextualized embeddings. Resumen: Los pocos estudios existentes sobre nominalizaciones deverbales cero (ZNs), tanto en inglés como en español, han dejado de lado el análisis de atributos importantes como las denotaciones semánticas (ej., producto, evento) y las funciones sintácticas (ej., realización de estructura argumental). En consecuencia, diversos postulados teóricos sobre las propiedades y el comportamiento de este tipo de nominalizaciones, sin marca morfológica, necesitan ser verificados sobre una muestra significativa de datos empíricos. Para ello, este estudio de lingüística computacional sigue la distinción de Borer [2013] sobre las nominalizaciones con estructura argumental (ASN) y las nominalizaciones referenciales (RN), categorías basadas en los sustantivos de eventos complejos, que heredan la estructura eventiva de sus verbos base, frente a los sustantivos de resultado y de evento simple que expresan un resultado más bien abstracto o concreto. Esta distinción se asume como una tarea de clasificación automática entrenada con dos tipos de rasgos (dependencias sintácticas y propiedades distributivas) extraídos de una novedosa base de datos en inglés y en español con ZNs en contexto oracional. Según nuestros resultados, la ambigüedad presente en la estructura argumental se reconoce mejor mediante relaciones sintácticas profundas y roles semánticos con anotación manual, mientras que las denotaciones referenciales se diferencian más eficientemente con embeddings contextualizados.

Abstract: Language assessment literacy (LAL) is a critical field for researchers, scholars, or anyone interested in improving the language teaching environment. Understanding the basics of testing and the ability to perform testing related activities becomes more significant in testoriented countries. In this regard, earlier studies have investigated various factors related to English language teaching. However, the assessment literacy of teachers has been relatively investigated within the context of Colombian language teaching. There is no broader research to understand how LAL operates in English teachers in the country. This study aims to examine how Colombian English language teachers currently use language assessment within the classroom, specifically, on two major aspects: the purposes of English language assessment, and second, English language assessment practices (traditional assessment, alternatives in assessment), as well as the role of teachers’ beliefs in assessment. The data collected correspond to a quantitative instrument, an online questionnaire. The total number of respondents was 32. The results suggest that teachers in Colombia in most of the cases develop assessment instruments by using their own knowledge and experience, in order to obtain information on the progress of the students, to provide them with feedback during the learning process, and to determine their final grades. Some implications with respect to language assessment practices and further suggestions to professional development. Based on the findings, the article concludes with suggestions that can be implemented to develop language assessment awareness of English teachers in Colombia.

Abstract: The spread of the COVID-19 disease caused by the respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has resulted in unpredicted measures restricting daily flights. Although passenger demand for travel has considerably reduced, the pre-existing impacts of gases generated by aeroplane engines on the environment are still substantial. This paper uses a modelling-based scenario analysis to assess the restriction policies relating to air transport in Argentina, Brazil and Colombia during and after the pandemic and their effects on the environment. The simulation results highlight the need to reduce the negative environmental impact produced by the aviation sector and suggest that policymakers should try to focus on creating ways to reduce the impact made by the aviation industry on the environment, through a coordinated environmental policy between countries, including the three that are the subject of the present case study in order to highlight these issues. Resumen: La propagación de la enfermedad COVID-19 causada por el síndrome respiratorio porcoronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) ha dado lugar a medidas imprevistas que restringen los vuelos diarios. Aunque la demanda de viajes de los pasajeros se ha reducido considerablemente, los impactos preexistentes de los gases generados por los motores de los aviones en el medio ambiente siguen siendo sustanciales. Este documento utiliza un análisis de escenarios basado en modelos para evaluar las políticas de restricción relacionadas con el transporte aéreo en Argentina, Brasil y Colombia durante y después de la pandemia y sus efectos sobre el medio ambiente. Los resultados de la simulación destacan la necesidad de reducir el impacto ambiental negativo producido por el sector de la aviación y sugieren que los responsables de la formulación de políticas deberían tratar de centrarse en crear formas de reducir el impacto de la industria de la aviación en el medio ambiente, a través de una política ambiental coordinada entre países, incluyendo los tres que son el tema del presente estudio de caso con el fin de resaltar estos temas.

Abstract: The principal objective of this document is to describe some of the relationships and similarities between nostalgia and generativity, two constructs that have been studied separately but rarely together. In order to carry out the research, it has been made a narrative review of various theoretical and empirical articles on both concepts published in different multidisciplinary databases. After a brief synthesis of found literature, a reflective meta-reading was performed, revealing how nostalgia through its relationship with constructs linked to well-being could promote generativity and facilitate the disclosure of intentions and generative actions. Similarly, the review described how both notions are related to the strengthening of existential meaning and quality of life. Resumen: El presente documento tiene como objetivo principal describir algunas de las similitudes y relaciones que existen entre la nostalgia y la generatividad, dos constructos que han sido estudiados separadamente, pero pocas veces de manera conjunta. Para poder llevar a cabo la investigación, se ha realizado una revisión narrativa de varios artículos teóricos y empíricos sobre ambos conceptos que han sido publicados en diferentes bases de datos multidisciplinares. Luego de hacer una breve síntesis de lo encontrado, se realizó una metalectura reflexiva la cual, permitió evidenciar primeramente como la nostalgia a través de su relación con constructos ligados al bienestar pueden promover la generatividad, asimismo, facilita la divulgación de las intenciones y las acciones generativas. De igual manera, se describió como ambos conceptos están relacionados con el fortalecimiento del significado existencial y de la calidad de vida.

Abstract: CO2 emissions in recent years have reached the highest levels historically, with peaks in 2018 and stabilization in 2020 due to the pandemic. Construction and materials production is among the most contributing industries to the greenhouse gas emission (GHG) effect. Architectural design has become an essential tool to face this environmental problem, just like civil engineering with creating, manipulating, and implementing less toxic and harmful building materials, and the energy consumption control in the structure's life cycle, becoming strategies for the significant reduction of anthropogenic emissions. Charcoal manages to store 50% of its carbon content for centuries, while Biochar, due to its pyrolysis production process and natural decomposition, releases up to 90% of carbon in the first ten years. Biochar, the solid subproduct of the pyrolysis process, is widely considered an effective water retention composite thanks to its morphology and high surface area. The opportunity of using it to improve the mechanical properties and achieve rheological requirements in cement pastes and cement mortar on a micro-scale is explored in this study. The results have demonstrated that with small percentages (1 - 5% and 7%) of Biochar used as a filler and substitution by cement weight in the sample preparation process, not only the compressive and flexural strength are increasing, but also the fracture energy, with a more tortuous crack path that increases the final fracture surface at an early age of maturation. However, this same behavior is not reflected at a late maturation age since there is an enhancement compared to the plain cement samples, but not as significant as that which occurs at an early maturation. In cement paste samples, Biochar used as 2% filler by cement weight can increase by 63% and 23% the flexural and compressive strength after 7-days of curing, respectively, while 29% and 13% the flexural and compressive strength after 28-days of curing, respectively. When taking about fracture energy and ductility factor, the behavior still being positive, with an improvement of 124% and 18% respectively after 7-days of curing, while 150% and 14% respectively after 28-days of curing. In cement mortar samples, Biochar was used as a filler and as substitution by cement weight. In this case, the samples do not seem to follow the same trend or behavior as the cement paste, especially at a late maturity; the mechanical properties seem to remain the same as the plain mortar, close to about 6 MPa and 70 MPa at flexural and compressive strength, respectively. The rheological tests' experimental results suggest that the addition of Biochar can increase the consistency of cementitious paste at the fresh state (e.g., increase in plastic viscosity, shear stress, and yield stress) compared to the reference mixture, also offering a way to waste recycling. This main rheological parameter evaluated appears to increment as the addition of Biochar increments, making the sample more viscous. Biochar's effect in the cement matrix in main rheological properties depends on the sample's preparation and the agglomeration of the particles and their content in each preparation.

Abstract: This project revises the 3D conceptual model for the Hvíthólar sub-area in the South Zone of Krafla Geothermal Field. Hvíthólar is one of 6 sub-areas in south Krafla, located at the intersection of the south boundary of Krafla caldera, striking E-W, and the NNE-SSW oriented fissure swarms of the North Volcanic Zone. The model developed in this study extends along Vestursvæði, Þríhvrningar, Hvíthólar and Sandabotnaskarð sub-areas with a combined area of around 30 km2. Hvíthólar is the only southern sub-area connected to Krafla power station and has exhibited a considerable production decline over the period of 1990 – 2013. According to a lumped simulation, the Hvíthólar reservoir follows a two tank open system with a volume of 6.00004 km3. The Hvíthólar enthalpy is approximately 1200 kJ/kg; chemically it presents a low concentration of Cl−, and high CO2. To date, most studies support the hypothesis that Hvíthólar characteristics and behaviour are due to the lack of a heat recharge and that the sub-area is in a phase of waning or even becoming extinct. An improved understanding of heat source location and permeability variations will provide the basis of future utilisation decisions. This study presents two alternative conceptual models for Hvíthólar in addition the existing one, as a means to test the current conceptual model in order to determine the potential to extend the life of the asset. An update of the geological model was carried out based on data from shallow and deep wells along the southern part of Krafla geothermal field. This update combined with existing data from surface exploration was used to generate three conceptual models in Leapfrog Geothermal. The models focus on the location of heat source, and the permeability variation at the intersection between caldera boundary and fissure swarm. Each of the models are validated with TOUGH2 simulations. Resumen: Este proyecto revisa el modelo conceptual 3D para la subárea Hvíthólar en la Zona Sur del Campo Geotérmico Krafla. Hvíthólar es una de las 6 subáreas en el sur de Krafla, ubicada en la intersección del límite sur de la caldera de Krafla, con rumbo E-O, y los enjambres de fisuras orientados NNE-SSO de la Zona Volcánica Norte. El modelo desarrollado en este estudio se extiende a lo largo de las subáreas Vestursvæði, Þríhvrningar, Hvíthólar y Sandabotnaskarð con un área combinada de alrededor de 30 km2. Hvíthólar es la única subárea sur conectada a la central de energía de Krafla y ha mostrado una disminución considerable de la producción durante el período 1990 - 2013. Según una simulación de lumped, el reservorio de Hvíthólar sigue un sistema abierto de dos tanques con un volumen de 6.00004 km3. La entalpía de Hvíthólar es de aproximadamente 1200 kJ / kg; químicamente presenta una baja concentración de Cl−, y alta concentración de CO2. Hasta la fecha, la mayoría de los estudios apoyan la hipótesis de que las características y el comportamiento de Hvíthólar se deben a la falta de una recarga de calor y que la subárea se encuentra en una fase de menguante o incluso de extinción. Un mejor entendimiento de la ubicación de la fuente de calor y las variaciones de permeabilidad en el campo proporcionarán la base de futuras decisiones de utilización. Este estudio presenta dos modelos conceptuales alternativos para Hvíthólar además del existente, como un medio para probar el modelo conceptual actual con el fin de determinar el potencial para extender la vida útil del activo. Una actualización del modelo geológico basado en datos de pozos poco profundos y profundos a lo largo de la parte sur del campo geotérmico Krafla fue realizada. Esta actualización, combinada con los datos existentes de la exploración de la superficie, se utilizó para generar tres modelos conceptuales en3D utilizando Leapfrog Geothermal. Los modelos se centran en la ubicación de la fuente de calor y la variación de la permeabilidad en la intersección entre el límite de la caldera y el enjambre de fisuras. Cada uno de los modelos está validado con simulaciones TOUGH2.

Abstract: Krafla Geothermal Field is located inside the Krafla Caldera in the Northeast of Iceland. The tectonic settings consist of a central volcano and its corresponding fissure swarm formed due to extension from plate spreading. The central volcano has a collapsed caldera dating ~110.000 years (Sæmundsson, 2008). Within the Krafla post Caldera collapse period, the orientation of the different extensional eruptive fissures evidence rotation of the plate. The initial events evidence above 20 degrees from North strike, whereas more recent events shifted orientation to be closer to 15 degrees North (Árnason, 2020). This paper discusses the chronological evolution of the Fissure Swarm inside Krafla Caldera and the effect on the stratigraphic reconstruction made in 2019 to compare conceptual models of the south zone subareas: Hvíthólar, Vestursvæði, and Sandabotnaskarð. This paper derived from the MSc Thesis project 3D Conceptual Model Hvíthólar Sub-area, Krafla carried out in 2019. This paper complements other publications such as (Castillo et al,2020).