Abstract: This paper analyzes how changes in political conditions affect distributive politics. We study the case of Colombia, focusing on the strategic allocation of land in relation to the electoral cycle. Relying on over 55.000 municipality-year observations on land allocations, exogenous timing of elections and sociodemographic controls, we show that there is a political land cycle (PLC), and that this cycle is dependent on the local political conditions in place. We analyze the changes in the PLC derived from the implementation of a deep political reform that increased political competition and the fiscal and administrative capacity of the state, doing so heterogeneously across municipalities. We show that the PLC decreased by half after the reform, with this reduction being stronger in municipalities in which political competition and fiscal and administrative capacity increased the most. The heterogeneous reduction in the PLC does not appear to stem from an aggregate weakening of distributive politics, but rather, from a recomposition of the distributive politics portfolio: away from the allocation of private targeted benefits like land, and towards the strategic allocation of public goods. We discuss the incentive and capacity effects explaining this re-composition likely affecting the relative costs and benefits of different types of distributive politics resources. The results evidence the importance of understanding not only the territorial dimension of distributive politics, but also how the specific traits of resources determine distributive politics strategies and their resilience to contextual changes. Resumen: Este artículo analiza cómo los cambios en las condiciones políticas afectan la política distributiva o clientelismo. Estudiamos el caso de Colombia, analizando la asignación estratégica de tierras en relación al ciclo electoral. Basándonos en más de 55.000 observaciones por año y municipio de asignaciones de tierras baldías, y aprovechando las fechas exógenamente determinadas para la realización de elecciones políticas durante los últimos 50 años, mostramos que existe un ciclo político de la tierra (PLC), y que este ciclo depende de las condiciones políticas locales. Luego analizamos los cambios en el PLC derivados de la implementación de una profunda reforma política (la Constitución de 1991) que incrementó la competencia política y la capacidad fiscal y administrativa del Estado, haciéndolo de manera heterogénea entre municipios. Mostramos que el PLC disminuyó a la mitad después de la reforma, con una mayor reducción en los municipios en los que la competencia política y la capacidad fiscal y administrativa aumentaron más. La reducción heterogénea en el PLC no parece provenir de un debilitamiento agregado de las prácticas clientelistas, sino más bien, de una recomposición del portafolio de clientelismo: este pasa de basarse en la asignación de beneficios privados como la tierra, a basarse en la asignación estratégica de bienes públicos. Discutimos los efectos de incentivos y de capacidad que explican esta recomposición del portafolio de clientelismo. Los resultados evidencian la importancia de comprender no solo la dimensión territorial del clientelismo, sino también cómo las características de los recursos a ser usados para clientelismo determinan las dinámicas clientelistas y su resiliencia a cambios contextuales.

Abstract: This thesis analyses the Colombian government’s decision-making process that involved international actors during the Havana peace process (2012-2016). The research highlights the influence of international actors in the government’s decisions that worked to end the armed conflict between the government and the FARC-EP in Colombia. In particular, this study raises the following research question: How, and in what way, was the Colombian government’s decision-making process influenced by international actors, especially the presence and actions of the UN, during the Havana peace process? The hypothesis of this research expects that the decision-making of the Colombian government during the Havana peace process had a key political condition of clearly defined involvement from international actors. It focuses on the Colombian Executive branch as the main actor and its relations with other national and international actors. To do so, the research references the theories of Foreign Policy Analysis, including the Governmental Politics Model and the Two-Level Game Model. This thesis provides an in-depth analysis of the Colombian government’s decision-making process that involved UN cooperation by applying an interpretative case study. The research methodology is built on data collection gathered by interviewing a number of high-profile individuals involved in the Havana peace process including members of the Colombian government, members of the former guerrilla FARC-EP, United Nations Officials, and national and international academics and advisors who were involved in the decision-making during the negotiations. The conclusion goes on to argue that the Colombian decision-making process implemented during the negotiations was designed precisely to effectively define the role of international support, which improved the likelihood of success of the final peace agreement. The cooperation of international actors, especially from the UN, built trust between the negotiating parties regarding the sustainability of the negotiations. In addition, the international cooperation promoted institutional and political conditions that were necessary to achieve the final peace agreement. Resumen: Esta tesis analiza el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano que incluyó la participación de actores internacionales en el proceso de paz de La Habana (2012-2016). La investigación destaca la influencia de los actores internacionales en las decisiones gubernamentales que facilitaron la terminación del conflicto armado entre el gobierno y las FARC-EP en Colombia. Particularmente, este estudio responde a la siguiente pregunta de investigación: ¿Cómo y de qué manera el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano fue influenciado por actores internacionales, especialmente la presencia y acción de la ONU durante el proceso de paz de La Habana? La hipótesis de esta investigación argumenta que el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano durante el proceso de paz de La Habana requirió una condición política de tener claramente definidos los límites de la participación de actores internacionales. La investigación enfoca en la rama de poder Ejecutivo colombiano como actor principal y en sus relaciones con otros actores nacionales e internacionales. Para esto, la investigación se basa en teorías de Análisis de Política Exterior, incluyendo el Modelo de Política Gubernamental y el Modelo del Juego de Dos Niveles. Esta tesis proporciona un profundo análisis del proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano que incorporó la cooperación de la ONU, aplicando un estudio de caso interpretativo. La metodología de investigación se fundamenta en la recolección de datos, entrevistando varios individuos de alto nivel involucrados en el proceso de paz colombiano, incluyendo miembros del Gobierno colombiano, miembros de la ex guerrilla de las FARC-EP, funcionarios de las Naciones Unidas, académicos y asesores nacionales e internacionales. La conclusión de la investigación argumenta entonces que el proceso de toma de decisiones colombiano implementado durante las negociaciones se organizó de manera precisa para definir efectivamente el papel del apoyo internacional, que aumentaría la probabilidad de éxito para un acuerdo final de paz. La cooperación de actores internacionales, especialmente de la ONU, creó confianza entre las partes negociadoras en favor de la sostenibilidad de las negociaciones. Adicionalmente, la cooperación internacional promovió condiciones institucionales y políticas que fueron necesarias para alcanzar el acuerdo final de paz.

Abtract: Small-scale farming systems in the Colombian Andes are vulnerable to threats that affect not only the food production and self-sufficiency of local communities, but that can affect the wellbeing of farmers and the environment. A holistic perspective of agriculture leads to understanding of the complexity of agroecosystems including its elements, processes, dynamics, interactions, synergies and trade-offs. This thesis examines the main characteristics, contexts and enabling environment for small-scale farming systems in Guachetá, Colombia, in order to identify and analyse the main agricultural problems in the municipality and possible solutions for them. Using the Tool for Agroecology Performance Evaluation (TAPE), the 10 elements of agroecology were evaluated on 7 farms along with the assessment of the performance of the systems using core performance criteria based on 5 key dimensions of sustainability. Furthermore, the analysis of qualitative data obtained from interviews with farmers and other actors, such as associations’representatives and academics in the fields of soils and agricultural science, facilitated the understanding of their perspectives in relation to the challenges that peasant farmers face. The results of this study show that the prevalence of dry climatic conditions and the variation on the typical rain patterns pose a major challenge for the current production system. In addition, the enabling environment, in regards to responsible governance and circular and solidarity economy, constitutes one of the major limitations. Currently, there are negligible possibilities for participation on the governance of the land and there is limited access to markets that offer fair conditions and proximity between consumers and producers. Also, the current agricultural practices reflect dependency on agrochemical inputs that, according to the analysis of the elements of agroecology, leads to low efficiency of the systems, limited agricultural biodiversity and low synergies within the agroecosystems. It is concluded that implementation of agroecological principles and practices that resemble natural ecological processes and that are characterized by joint action can aid in overcoming these issues leading to the improvement of the sustainability of food systems in Guachetá.

Abstract: Latin American countries are experiencing a significant increase in the reports of mistreatment that women experience while using the maternity healthcare services, a phenomenon acknowledged as “Obstetric Violence” (OV). The Latin American region is crucial for the recognition of OV, not only because the term OV was originated there, but also because of its particular response to the matter. The present Scoping Review aimed to identify and review the available evidence about the response of Latin American countries to OV. As a result, it was found, firstly, that the emergence of the concept of OV in Latin America demonstrated to be a transformative tool useful to raise awareness about the mistreatment women face when giving birth. This OV concept also positions this problematic as subset of gendered violence and as a type of structural violence, through which the need to address it systemically is highlighted. Secondly, the used categorization of OV appears to be the broadest and more inclusive typology, emphasizing that OV might stem from both intentional and unintentional actions of healthcare professionals, as well as from conditions within healthcare organizations. Moreover, the identified variables that influence the response to OV in Latin America were synthetized into a theoretical framework, which offers insight into how the problem has been addressed until now and subsequently, provides useful lessons for other countries seeking approaches to combat mistreatment of women during childbirth. Lastly, it was determined that, in order to address OV and allow the progression of public policies to become regionally available, a broadened view encompassing a human rights-based approach is necessary. This research allowed to conclude that OV is a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon whose solution requires a multidimensional and multidisciplinary approach. Furthermore, OV should be understood as more than a simple act of mistreatment, but rather be viewed as a set of socially constructed symbolic, and violent, meanings allowing different stakeholders to reframe the abuse and violence that women undergoing childbirth experience as natural, expected, and accepted, reinforcing specific gender dynamics not merely in maternity care but in society overall. Finally, the framework to tackle OV within the human rights approach developed by the author is expected to be advantageous for the development of further research, programs, and policies to prevent OV in Latin America and beyond.

Resumen: El síndrome Cornelia de Lange (SCdL) es un desorden congénito del desarrollo, que cursa con dismorfia facial, retraso de crecimiento y psicomotor, reducción de las extremidades, hirsutismo y afectación variable de otros aparatos o sistemas. Tiene una prevalencia baja estimándose en 1 de cada 15000 nacidos vivos, por lo que ha sido considerado como una enfermedad rara. Se conocen cinco genes causales (NIPBL , SMC1A, SMC3, HDAC8 y RAD21) que codifican proteínas reguladoras y estructurales del complejo de cohesinas. La ausencia de diagnóstico en cerca del 30% de los pacientes y la gran variabilidad fenotípica, ha sugerido la existencia de otros genes responsables, y quizás también la implicación de otros mecanismos moleculares. El reciente descubrimiento de que NIPBL podía actuar como una proteína remodeladora de la cromatina, ha hecho proponer que el SCdL debería ser considerado más un Desorden de la Cromatina que una Cohesinopatía. El objetivo general de esta memoria ha sido establecer nuevas correlaciones genotipofenotipo dentro del espectro del Síndrome Cornelia de Lange. Para ello se han estudiado casos atípicos que, muchas veces, tenían alteraciones moleculares únicas. Todo ello ha servido para buscar una explicación a la gran heterogeneidad clínica del síndrome. Como método de trabajo se han realizado historias clínicas exhaustivas, acompañadas de exploraciones físicas detalladas y de pruebas complementarias. Asimismo, se han evaluado alteraciones moleculares como variaciones en el número de copias de genes, presencia de mosaicismo somático o coexistencia de más de un síndrome. Además, el uso de nuevas tecnologías como la secuenciación masiva o paneles específicos, ha permitido proponer aproximaciones diagnósticas efectivas y novedosas para estos pacientes. En el primer trabajo se hace una descripción clínica detallada de un paciente portador de una duplicación en el gen SMC1A. A través de estudios como el cariotipo de alta resolución, el HGC y el Western blot, se confirma que la duplicación está incluida dentro de un cromosoma marcador y que produce un aumento de expresión de la proteína. Sin embargo, a pesar de que este gen es uno de los causales del SCdL, la Gestalt del paciente lo aleja de este cuadro y su fenotipo solo ha podido ser considerado como el de una cohesinopatía sin tipificar. En el segundo trabajo, se evalúa a un sujeto con SCdL y mutación en NIPBL, que presenta uno fenotipo nuevo de reducción de extremidades, caracterizado por afectación ipsilateral derecha con agenesia de peroné e hipoplasia de tibia. El estudio por pirosecuenciación en muestras de diferente origen embrionario descarta un posible mosaicismo somático. Además, la utilización de HCG y la secuenciación masiva confirman la falta de implicación de otros genes causales. Estos hallazgos amplían nuestro conocimiento sobre los defectos de reducción que pueden acompañar al síndrome. En el tercer trabajo se describe como gracias a las nuevas técnicas de secuenciación masiva se diagnóstica un paciente con SCdL y mosaicismo somático del gen NIPBL. Inicialmente, el paciente fue estudiado mediante secuenciación Sanger con resultado negativo. Sin embargo, el hallazgo de la mutación mediante técnicas de secuenciación masiva, sirvió para reforzar la idea, de que parte de los pacientes no diagnosticados podrían padecer una mutación en estado mosaico, y de que las técnicas más adecuadas para descubrirlo, serían, combinar la secuenciación masiva con el estudio de ADN de células epiteliales de mucosa oral o fibroblastos. En el último trabajo se describe una paciente con SCdL y Síndrome de Turner en estado mosaico. Esta coincidencia y la observación de que el Turner es posterior temporalmente a la mutación de NIPBL, sirve para sugerir la hipótesis, de que las mutaciones del complejo de cohesinas podrían estar relacionadas con alteraciones en el reordenamiento cromosómico.

Resumen: El estudio indaga en las lógicas de la ciudadanía digital y la mediatización política en redes sociales digitales. Para esto, se analizan las expresiones hipermediales de ciudadanía en la red social digital Twitter que se dieron en la coyuntura del paro nacional en Colombia en noviembre de 2019. El corpus de estudio consta de 182 tweets que se abordaron metodológicamente desde la etnografía virtual y el análisis del discurso multimodal. El estudio argumenta que la frecuencia de uso de los medios, y las tecnologías que los soportan han reacomodado las fronteras entre lo público y lo privado, lo local y lo global, así como los lenguajes disponibles y posibilidades expresivas para la producción y consumo simbólico. En ese sentido, se destaca que la popularización de las redes sociales digitales ha llevado a un nuevo nivel la expresión de subjetividades, lo cual incluye la participación política.

Abstract: In this study, an approach for dressing metallic bonded honing stones with hard cutting grains on the basis of electrolysis is investigated. By a combination of concepts from electrochemical machining (ECM) and electropolishing, a test rig was designed and put into operation. In general, it can be stated that the approach investigated in this paper has proved to be a suitable dressing method for honing stones. However, the dressing result is highly dependent on bond components, cutting grain size, and concentration which lead to local differences in the material removal and irregular topographies. This could be overcome, for example, by setting the dressing parameters more precisely based on the best results presented in this paper. Resumen: En este estudio se investiga un enfoque para el rectificado de piedras de bruñir metálicas con granos de corte duros sobre la base de la electrólisis. Mediante una combinación de conceptos del mecanizado electroquímico (ECM) y del electropulido, se diseñó y puso en funcionamiento un equipo de pruebas. En general, se puede afirmar que el enfoque investigado en este trabajo ha demostrado ser un método de rectificado adecuado para las piedras de bruñir. Sin embargo, el resultado del reavivado depende en gran medida de los componentes de la unión, el tamaño del grano de corte y la concentración, lo que provoca diferencias locales en la eliminación de material y topografías irregulares. Esto podría superarse, por ejemplo, ajustando los parámetros de reavivado con mayor precisión sobre la base de los mejores resultados presentados en este trabajo.

Abstract: According to the World Bank, with the dramatic increase of the world´s population in the last decade, the generation of solid waste has reached 2.01 billion tonnes/annually (almost a kilogram per person daily). Bearing into mind that urban centres concentrate almost 70% of the world´s inhabitants and are the most technologically developed areas, the necessity to run them as Sustainable and Smart cities is vital for the planet´s health. One of the main and most threatening sources of waste are lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), due to the lack of logistics and technology to handle them properly, despite the increasing popularity of their usage. Besides mobile devices (phones and laptops), LIBs feed several public transportation networks, self-owned vehicles (cars, bicycles, and scooters) and mobility shared services. In fact, 140-million new electric vehicles are expected to replace internal combustion engines in the following decade worldwide, which will reduce the carbon footprint of cities, but can become a potential source of environmental, social and economic challenges if the 11-million metric tons of E-waste are not addressed from a Whole-Lifecycle perspective. This trend has been accelerated by the changing commuting dynamics and increasing social fragility triggered by COVID-19. Therefore, researchers, policy- and decision-makers are struggling to find environmentally safe disposal strategies to reach the balance between development and sustainability within the built environment. Taking this into account, the thesis presents an approach related to the most efficient solution of integrating a closed-loop reverse-logistics Circular Economy into the batterie´s supply chain. Throughout the document, the authors developed a feasible business model dedicated to collect and process LIBs to generate high-purity components to produce new batteries. The business conceptualization implied an extensive understanding of the stateof-the-art of the sector (SWOT and PESTLE analysis), an analytic benchmarking process, and the implementation of Industry-4.0 and Lifecycle Market Seeking. The result was a detailed business plan that maximised the organizational and financial aspects in order to optimize processes and resources, the strategic location of the pilot factory based on a Multicriteria Analysis, and a 3-levelled hierarchical organizational planning. The final part of the document deepened into the pilot phase by developing the architectural masterplan of the spokes (collection points) and hubs (factory). Furthermore, some expansion plans were discussed at a strategic level to propose future research topics.

Abstract: The environmental burdens of cement production and the construction field play a major role in the current climate crisis. Nearly 50 % of the carbon emissions are associated with the burning of limestone and cannot be avoided unless a different raw material is used. Additionally, the construction and demolition waste is an important source of debris that typically ends up in landfills, even though it has a significant potential for upgrading into recycled cement. In this research, the thermal treatment at clinkering temperatures of hydrated Ordinary Portland cement and mortars was evaluated as a source for cement production. Hydrated blends with ground granulated blast furnace slags were evaluated as well. The thermal treatment was comparatively performed in an electric furnace at 1250 °C, 1350 °C, and 1450 °C and 2.45 GHz microwave furnace at input powers of 0.5 kW, 1 kW, 1.5 kW, and 2 kW. Microwaves are a promising technology to assure greener industrial thermal processes due to lower energy consumption, high heating rates, and low processing times. The obtained materials were characterized by X-ray Fluorescence, X-ray Diffraction, Thermogravimetric Analysis, and Differential Scanning Calorimetry. Furthermore, performance characterization was done with calorimetry and compressive strength. Finally, microstructure analysis was accomplished using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis. Cement type CEMI 52.5R was used as a reference. In Addition, the microwave heating was simulated in COMSOL multiphysics for a better understanding of the interaction between the cement-based materials and the microwave irradiation. The geometry of the furnace’s cavity, the input power, the heating rate, and the influence of the fraction of quartz were evaluated. The experimentation proved that microwaving is a suitable technology to recover clinker phases from hydrated samples. The materials obtained were significantly similar in mineralogic composition to the reference cement. However, the presence of quartz drastically hindered the formation of the primary clinker phases while slags additions enhanced the formation of belite rather than to alite. The mechanical characterization showed that mortars produced with 20 % of replacement of the reference Ordinary Portland Cement by recycled cement obtained by microwave treatment develop a similar compressive strength as the reference cement reaching up to 50 MPa at 28 days similar to the 52.2 MPa expected for the reference. Moreover, the simulation demonstrated the capability for short-time processing of less than 5 min for nearly 15 g of sample. In contrast, the conventional treatment for 60 g of samples took beet 7 and 10 h. The model showed that the heating is highly localized. Processing at 0.5 kW and 1 kW are recommended for a more controlled process. Finally, from the thermal point of view, additions of nearly 20 % of quartz increase the heating rate and enable more homogeneous heating. The research proved the potential of microwave treatment for a more sustainable way to produce cement from hydrated samples and could be suitable for the cement fractions from construction and demolition waste.

Abstract: The dispersion of pollutants from urban sources needs to be investigated and the mechanisms which have an influence on the dispersion need to be totally understood. UAV-based systems offer great potential for mobile exploration of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere due to the high maneuverability of multi-rotor UAVs. The aim of this study was to develop a UAV platform capable of performing high-resolution three-dimensional profiling of pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), ultrafine particles (UFP), black carbon (BC), as well as meteorological parameters including temperature, relative humidity, pressure, wind speed, and wind direction. This study included a smoke test to examine the propeller-caused airflows. The results showed that the sensor air inlets and wind sensor should be located at least 90 cm above the propeller level. In addition, a field test was conducted to evaluate the stability of the UAV platform and the in-flight performance of the sensors. During the three flights carried out, the UAV platform was stable, and the data collected with the sensors were consistent. Finally, a three-day measurement campaign was conducted to examine the short-term three-dimensional variation of the traffic-related pollutant concentrations near the federal road B14. The vertical profiles showed that concentrations were higher on the ground due to the proximity to the source and that high wind speeds help the fast dispersion of the pollutants. The horizontal profiles showed that the pollutant concentrations were higher at the roadside and decreased with increasing distance from the road. In conclusion, this UAV platform represents a low-cost, practical, and reliable method to study the three-dimensional distribution of pollutants near the source. Resumen: La dispersión de contaminates originado por fuentes urbanas necesita ser investigado y los mecanismos que tienen influencia en la dispersión deben ser totalmente comprendidos. Los sistemas basados en VANT ofrecen gran potencial en la exploración de contaminantes del aire en la parte inferior de la atmósfera debido a la alta manejabilidad de los VANT multirotor. El objetivo de este estudio fue el desarrollo de una plataforma, usando un VANT, capaz de realizar perfiles tridimensionales de alta resolución de contaminantes como material particulado, particulas ultrafinas, carbón negro, así como parámetros meteorológicos incluyendo temperatura, humedad relativa, presión, velocidad y dirección del viento. Este estudio incluyó una prueba de humo para examinar los flujos de aire provocados por las hélices del VANT. Los resultados mostraron que las entradas de aire de los sensores y el sensor de viento deben ubicarse al menos 90 cm por encima del nivel de la hélice. Además, se realizó una prueba de campo para evaluar la estabilidad del VANT equipado y el desempeño de los sensores en vuelo. Durante los tres vuelos realizados, VANT se mantuvo estable y los datos recolectados con los sensores fueron consistentes. Finalmente, se llevaron a cabo mediciones durante tres días para examinar la variación tridimensional a corto plazo de las concentraciones de contaminantes relacionados con el tráfico cerca de la carretera federal B14 en Stuttgart. Los perfiles verticales mostraron que las concentraciones eran mayores en el suelo debido a la proximidad a la fuente y que las altas velocidades del viento ayudan a la rápida dispersión de los contaminantes. Los perfiles horizontales mostraron que las concentraciones de contaminantes eran más altas al costado de la carretera y disminuían al aumentar la distancia desde la carretera. En conclusión, este VANT equipado representa un método de bajo costo, práctico y confiable para estudiar la distribución tridimensional de contaminantes cerca de la fuente.