OBJECTIVES: Unintentional asphyxia among preadolescents and adolescents by compression of the neck and other means of inducing hypoxia / anoxia in order to get exhilarating effects are not new or uncommon behaviors and can lead to death by accident. Medical science has described autoerotic asphyxiation and more recently asphyxial games “choking games” as different entities. This study addresses both behaviors to understand the characteristics of how these practices are presented as well as the risks factors to them in order to determine if there are substantial differences between the two practices, or if instead they are related behaviors. Accurate knowledge of these behaviors based on scientific evidence will facilitate the understanding of the etiology and manifested features and facilitate the implementation of preventive measures to avoid such deaths. METHODS: A retrospective study of fatal cases published in recognized scientific journal articles of both autoerotic asphyxiation and choking game behaviors in the adolescent population was made. Articles on sociology, psychoanalysis and psychiatry as well as studies previously published case series and epidemiological studies to assess student population etiological factors and risk factors associated with behaviors were included in this review. Features of both behaviors, such as prevalence, age distribution, gender, type of asphyxia and place of occurrence are presented. RESULTS: The results are consistent in all variables analyzed for both behaviors. Most practitioners are men. Cases of both behaviors in preadolescence show a tendency to increase with age. The most frequent type of asphyxia identified was hanging conducted in private quarters. Psychiatric and psychoanalytic literature identifies common elements between male castration complex, failed oral psychosexual development and the practice of asphyxia in its integration with sociological theories of risk and confrontation ordeal in adolescence. The review of epidemiological studies reveals common elements in the development of both practices in terms of risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence suggests a link between both practices and allows to theorize that they are part of the same syndrome. Integrating psychoanalytic and sociological concepts as well as the risk factors suggests a linear sequential model of development in four stages: childhood syndrome rope, asphyxial games associated to masturbation, Adolescent autoerotic asphyxia and Adult Autoerotic Asphyxia fetishist / bondage Syndrome. Death is explained in each of the stages as failed physiological and emotional adaptation mechanisms. It is important to disseminate knowledge of these practices among health professionals and further studies should be carried out in regarding deaths by hanging in children and adolescents.

In 2007, the European Commission recognized “Café de Colombia” as the first non-European Protected Geographical Indication. It was the result of longstanding advertising efforts promoting the Colombian Coffee as a synonym of quality, particularly guaranteeing its singleorigin. Around the indication “Café de Colombia”, economical, cultural, political and social benefits have been achieved. Consequently, this case demonstrates the relevance of indications of geographical origin (IGOs), and the need for adequate measures of protection. Nevertheless, this case also reveals the inconvenient regulation of the TRIPS Agreement regarding this matter. First, the paper demonstrates that the TRIPS Agreement allows the registration of individual Trademarks (TMs) containing or consisting of IGOs, which leads to a symbiosis between two incompatible regimes. As a result, the TRIPS Agreement makes feasible the monopolization of IGOs through TM registration. It also godfathers the potential misleading use of TMs regarding the geographical origin of the products. To support these assertions, it is required to draw a parallel between TM law and the IGO regime. It is also relevant to present the variety of means of protection that national jurisdictions might adopt to implement the TRIPS Agreement, avoiding the registration of individual TMs. Second, the document highlights the discriminatory regulation adopted by the TRIPS Agreement on IGOs, favoring indications for wines and spirits. It studies the origins of such a discriminatory system of protection, to demonstrate that no plausible justification lies on it. Therefore, this paper advocates for the extension of the protection currently reserved to indications for wines and spirits. In doing so, the analysis of “Café de Colombia” results even more eloquent because Colombia, a country famous for its coffee rather than for its production of wines and spirits (in which it has no tradition at all), is part of the opponent group, advocating for the discriminatory two-tiered system adopted by the TRIPS Agreement.

Energy systems entail a dualism: they are absolutely vital for the normal functioning of societies, but the activities related to them are threatening the stability of the natural environment where societies develop (by being the main source of greenhouse gas emissions). Therefore, energy systems need to be maintained and further expanded, whilst simultaneously reducing their negative environmental impacts. In this sense, a deeper understanding of the thermodynamic concepts behind energy use and conversion processes is needed. Exergy and useful work provide such an understanding and hence their analysis can be used as a tool for improved energy policy making, particularly when dealing with efficiency improvements. In consideration of the above, this dissertation first looks into the energy dualism, followed by the description of the conceptual framework which orientates the work. Subsequently this is applied to the analysis of Colombia as an illustrative case study, taking into account data availability and specific features of that country’s energy system, which in themselves provide special analytical interest. Finally, this dissertation discusses methodological issues and results, as well as the energy policy implications derived from the analysis, both in general/conceptual terms and in the specific case of Colombia. As a result, it was found that exergy and useful work analysis is a tool that can complement traditional energy analysis when assessing national energy systems. Exergy and useful work provide significant conceptual improvements, as well as strengthening the comprehension of the whole flow of energy through society. Furthermore, exergy and useful work analysis leads to different energy policy recommendations when compared to the traditional energy based analysis, particularly regarding energy sources for electricity generation, efficiency dilution effects and leapfrogging opportunities.

Arabinogalactan-proteins (AGPs) or proteoglycans in Green coffee beans (GCB) are characterized by their low levels of extraction. Previous work reported a yield of ~1,1% (w/w) of GCB using hot water extraction. This means over 92% AGP of the coffee beans remains in the residual cell wall material (RCWM) composed of cellulose and mannan. The aim of this research is to increase the extraction of AGP from green coffee beans, applying different extraction methods and to compare the methods based on their yield and the chemical composition of obtained fraction. AGP was extracted by: single extraction using (1) cold (4 °C) or (2) hot water (90°C), (3) enzymatic hydrolysis or by sequential extraction, starting with cold water, followed by (4) hot water or alkali (6M KOH) extraction and enzymatic hydrolysis. Extracted AGP was purified and recovered using a preparative anion exchange column (AEC). AGP fractions were identified with a Yariv radial gel diffusion assay. The highest extraction yield (8,7% AGP) was obtained through sequential extraction using alkali. In this method, the alkali extraction resulting in extraction of 57% of the total AGP extracted with the sequence followed by the enzymatic treatment with a 37%. Two main AGPs were obtained with AEC one unbound and the other bound (both showed positive reaction to Yariv reagent test). In order to elucidate the reasons of having these two different AGPs, molecular size was determined using HPSEC, but clear differences were not observed. A main peak with a molecular weight of 287 kDa was measured for both. Analysis carried out in the composition of AGPs confirmed the majority content of arabinose and galactose and the presence of proteins and uronic acids to a less extent. Protein content was on average 12% (w/w). The carbohydrate moiety accounted between 3 to 7% uronic acids with glucuronic acid being the most predominant. Effect of the extraction method on the structure was reflected in the variation of the ratio Galactose/Arabinose. For instance, AGP from cold water showed a ratio of 2.6 indicating its highly branched nature that eases its solubilization. In contrasts ratio of AGP from the enzymatic treatment in the sequential extraction was around 8, which means a poor branch structure. The difference in the ratios reflects the strength of the treatment applied in the composition of AGP. Therefore studies on the extraction of AGP from coffee beans have to be developed using milder methods to maintain the native structure of the AGP presences in the CWM and therefore reducing the side effects on its structure.

Crime and violence have been regarded as one of the main obstacles to development in Latin America countries. Well-known researchers and institutions have studied the impact of violence on health and development in many countries of South America, showing violence as a two-fold constraint, to health and development. Since Colombia has been one of the countries most affected by violence, this dissertation studies violence at the national level and at the municipal level. This research uses a quantitative approach in order to reveal how violence has been occurring in Colombia. Likewise, it uses the city of Bucaramanga as a case study in order to understand how violence, low socioeconomic status and low academic levels are related.Crime and violence have been regarded as one of the main obstacles to development in Latin America countries. Well-known researchers and institutions have studied the impact of violence on health and development in many countries of South America, showing violence as a two-fold constraint, to health and development. Since Colombia has been one of the countries most affected by violence, this dissertation studies violence at the national level and at the municipal level. This research uses a quantitative approach in order to reveal how violence has been occurring in Colombia. Likewise, it uses the city of Bucaramanga as a case study in order to understand how violence, low socioeconomic status and low academic levels are related. This dissertation analyses how interpersonal and collective violence occurs in Colombia (2006 – 2009) and particularly in Bucaramanga (2006). It analyses violence by linking two main rising typologies in Colombia and their most common manifestations. Firstly, it looks at interpersonal violence through child abuse and intimate partner violence; secondly, it focuses on collective violence through homicides. Quantitative analysis is carried out through factors such as age, gender, perpetrators and time to measure manifestations at the national level and the municipal level (Bucaramanga). Furthermore, violence is mapped in Bucaramanga with the purpose of identifying where the most affected areas are. Similarly, it points out deprived areas of Bucaramanga by showing indicators such us socioeconomic status, academic level, public services coverage, which are also mapped. Finally, both maps are overlapped with the aim of understanding links between violence, socioeconomic status and academic level. The research carried out found that there is a close relationship between interpersonal and collective violence and across their manifestations. It also revealed that Bucaramanga shows the same patterns in interpersonal and collective violence as the national level with small variations. Moreover, the research found a close relation between violence, low socioeconomic status and low academic levels in Bucaramanga. This dissertation concludes reviewing successful policies implemented at the municipal level aimed at reducing violence. It uses the successful example of Medellín to recommend possible policies that could reduce crime and violence in Bucaramanga.

El concepto de Internet of Things (IoT por sus siglas en inglés) o Internet de las cosas se define como una evolución del actual internet y tiene el objetivo de permitir a objetos o dispositivos identificables unívocamente en digital, comunicarse con otros dispositivos y sistemas distribuidos a través de internet, utilizando estándares abiertos. Este paradigma permite ofrecer muchos servicios innovativos, pervasivos y ubicuos que encuentran aplicabilidad tanto en sectores tradicionales como automatización o control industrial y en campos más modernos como e-health, sistemas de energía inteligentes, ciudades inteligentes entre otros. Una de las principales tecnologías habilitantes para el IoT es el Tag RFID, de hecho este Tag asociado a un objeto no inteligente, puede identificarlo unívocamente y ser utilizado para memorizar información sobre el objeto mismo. También la estandarización de tecnologías wireless, como las consolidadas Bluetooth y ZigBee y las más recientes 6LoWPAN e COAP han tenido una gran importancia en la difusión del concepto de IoT, porque han permitido tener sensores poco invasivos, sensibles, económicos y muy precisos, los cuales no perturban los parámetros medidos por los otros sensores expuestos cercanamente, pueden ser stand-alone o reagrupados en redes de sensores y pueden funcionar de manera independiente. Tales sensores son utilizados para recoger información en tiempo real sobre parámetros del ambiente, como temperatura, localización, movimiento, etc. Y pueden ser gestionados e integrados en plataformas tecnológicas para el IoT. Sin embargo, estos objetos inteligentes pueden interactuar entre ellos a pesar de las diferencias en términos de hardware, software y protocolos de comunicación usados. Una solución común es utilizar un software especializado conocido como middleware, el cual se trata de un importante componente arquitectural para el soporte de las aplicaciones distribuidas, que usualmente se posiciona entre las aplicaciones y el sistema operativo. El rol del middleware es el de presentar un modelo de programación unificado para programadores y desarrolladores de aplicaciones, enmascarar los problemas de heterogeneidad entre dispositivos y la distribución del software. Vista la complejidad de las plataformas para el internet de las cosas, y teniendo en cuenta varios aspectos importantes para facilitar el uso de tales sistemas y herramientas de configuración que vienen incorporados con ellos, los cuales permiten configurar una instancia del sistema, gestionar el ciclo de vida de los módulos que lo integran y tener una idea clara en tiempo real de su estado de ejecución, facilitando al usuario la fase de commissioning de la plataforma y la fase de configuración de los diferentes componentes principales. El objetivo de esta tesis es extender la actual herramienta de configuración del middleware VIRTUS, basándose sobre las consideraciones hechas estudiando el estado del arte de los métodos para la configuración de arquitecturas de software distribuido. Visto el amplio campo de posibles soluciones, se decidió focalizarse sobre algunas soluciones del sector Smart energy poniendo particular atención sobre el middleware open source LinkSmart. VIRTUS es un middleware orientado al internet de las cosas que usa instrumentos abiertos y estándares que ofrecen una solución escalable, ágil y totalmente event-driven para el soporte de aplicaciones para el internet de las cosas. La arquitectura de VIRTUS prevé un instrumento para la configuración y gestión del middleware, este software permite al usuario interactuar con varios módulos del sistema y controlar en fase de ejecución el ciclo de vida del software, y recuperar el estado de ejecución actual de las aplicaciones. Después de la fase de estudio, se decidió concentrar los desarrollos sobre la funcionalidad de configuración dinámica de aplicaciones multidominio, que permiten la comunicación entre diferentes instancias del middleware, dado que aún no está presente en el sistema de configuración. Además de adicionar esta característica, en el mismo contesto ha sido implementado también un mecanismo de DISCOVERY para permitir al middleware, descubrir cuales sensores están presentes en una instancia remota de VIRTUS y poder escoger aquellos que sean necesarios para completar la configuración de la propia aplicación. Esta última parte ha sido desarrollada a través del protocolo XMPP, protocolos abiertos de mensajería instantánea utilizados en VIRTUS para la comunicación entre las diferentes entidades. El presente trabajo se estructura en 4 capítulos. En el primer capítulo vienen analizados a nivel general los conceptos de Internet de las cosas y middleware, el segundo capítulo describe como pueden clasificarse los middleware y sus diferentes arquitecturas, en el tercer capítulo se presenta el estudio hecho sobre los principales sistemas de configuración y herramientas de gestión en tiempo real, en el ámbito de Smart energy y sobre el middleware LinkSmart, en el último capítulo se describe la arquitectura del middleware VIRTUS y su sistema de configuración, además vienen detallados los desarrollos hechos, las posibles evoluciones y las conclusiones.

Abstract: Human settlements have facilitated population growth and the accumulation of possessions, enabling their survival as a species. However, these positive effects have also brought along the generation of waste throughout history (Zapata&Hall, 2013). Local production of waste in urban centres has become a global issue, as an increasing population of 7 billion inhabitants (Worldometers, 2015) are daily discarding tonnes of objects and goods. By 2013, it was estimated that the generation of solid waste in the world had increased 10 times over the past century reaching 3.5 million tonnes per day (Jacquot, 2013). Two years later, this number is even higher. According with WasteAtlas (2015) we generate around 4.38 daily million tonnes of waste that usually end in dumpsites or landfills contrary to what happened in the nineteenth century, when practices of recycling and reusing were culturally and socially accepted. The culture of consumerism has come with a change on the perceptions of waste on the last decades by which we have adopted habits of throwing away, tied to constructed ideas about hygiene and the disposal of objects as a sign of prosperity and ease (Strasser, 2000). However, this new relation with waste has signified high social and environmental costs such as air and water pollution and emission of greenhouse gases (Hyman et al. 2013). Resumen: El concepto de basura responde a una clasificación definida por ideas construidas social y culturalmente. Así, prácticas como el reciclaje, anteriormente aceptadas, fueron, a través del tiempo, rechazadas por imaginarios sobre la higiene y por una sociedad de consumo. La cantidad de basura que se genera a diario en todas las ciudades del mundo, es sin duda uno de los mayores retos de nuestros tiempos. El manejo de residuos lleva consigo dinámicas ambientales y sociales que no pueden ser ignorados por la ciudadanía ni por el Estado. Esta investigación hace un análisis de algunas de las normas sobre el servicio público de aseo en Colombia y, en especial del caso de Bogotá desde el concepto de justicia ambiental, fundado en tres elementos: justa distribución de cargas y beneficios, reconocimiento y participación. Al encontrar que el modelo de aseo en Colombia ha estado basado principalmente en la generación de basuras y en la recolección y no en prácticas que contribuyan a la reducción, se presenta el caso de la Asociación de Recicladores de Bogotá y del manejo de residuos orgánicos para compostaje con el fin de conocer cómo la participación en estas dos alternativas puede contribuir a una ciudad ambientalmente más sostenible y sobretodo, más justa.

INTRODUCCIÓN En el mundo, la proporción de personas mayores de 60 años ha experimentado un crecimiento importante debido al aumento de la esperanza de vida y la disminución de la tasa de fecundidad, fenómeno no ajeno a Latinoamérica y a Colombia. (1-3) El síndrome de fragilidad está asociado con disminución en la calidad de vida y aumento de costos en su atención. (4) La presencia de fragilidad en el anciano supone un riesgo de mortalidad y discapacidad. (4) OBJETIVO Caracterizar el perfil de fragilidad en una población adulto mayor en un municipio de Colombia en el periodo de julio a octubre del 2017. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS Estudio descriptivo observacional de corte transversal en sujetos de ambos sexos, de edad mayor o igual a 60 años en una población de Colombia, se caracterizó el perfil de fragilidad de acuerdo a los criterios validados por la escala de Fried, en quienes cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. RESULTADOS Se analizó 318 adultos mayores, de los cuales el 62.8% correspondían a población prefragil, el 18.5 % a población frágil y el 18.5 % a población no frágil. Los prefragiles presentaron mayor frecuencia de comorbilidad, polifarmacia, caídas, baja escolaridad, baja actividad física, dependencia, depresión, deterioro cognitivo, riesgo de malnutrición y bajo desempeño en pruebas de ejecución física. CONCLUSIONES Se evidenció el perfil de fragilidad y factores asociados en adultos mayores en municipio de predominio rural que sugiere la intervención temprana para prevenir complicaciones, mantener independencia y calidad de vida.

Objetivo: Determinar el riesgo a desarrollar diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y prediabetes por medio del cuestionario FINDRISK en pacientes entre los 35 a los 75 años de edad que asisten a consulta externa en una institución prestadora de servicios (IPS) de Bogotá. Métodos: Estudio descriptivo transversal, realizado en la ciudad de Bogotá en sujetos adultos que asistieron a consulta externa a los cuales se les aplicó el cuestionario FINDRISK validado para Colombia y aquellos con puntajes igual o mayor a 12 se les realizó marcadores glicémicos y perfil lipídico. Con los datos obtenidos se realizó análisis univariado, bivariado y correspondencias múltiples. Resultados: De los 796 participantes el 11% (n= 88) presentó prediabetes y el 0,7% (n=6) diabetes, el 36,8% (n=293) de la población general tuvo un FINDRISK igual o mayor a 12, de estos al 30% se le diagnosticó prediabetes y al 2% diabetes; el 54,9% cursaba con hipertensión arterial, 50% con antecedente familiar de diabetes, 43% antecedentes de dislipidemia, 86% perímetro abdominal mayor a los rangos establecidos y dislipidemia en más del 50%. Conclusión: El cuestionario FINDRISK demuestra ser una herramienta útil en la detección de los pacientes con riesgo de diabetes permitiendo la detección de estados prediabéticos favoreciendo el manejo temprano y la prevención de complicaciones. Adicionalmente podemos afirmar que los pacientes con trastornos glicémicos muestran tendencia a cursar con dislipidemia por lo que se confirma la necesidad del estudio metabólico completo de estos pacientes.

Introducción: La principal causa de morbi-mortalidad en adultos es la enfermedad cardiovascular y sus complicaciones. El sedentarismo es uno de los factores de riesgo modificables en los que se puede intervenir para disminuir impacto sobre la morbilidad cardiovascular; de ahí la importancia de la labor educativa en estilos de vida saludable que realiza el personal del sector salud en sus actividades diarias. Objetivo: Describir la prevalencia de sedentarismo en los estudiantes de posgrado y docentes de la Facultad de Medicina de la Fundación Universitaria de Ciencias de la Salud en Bogotá, Colombia. Metodología: Estudio observacional descriptivo de corte transversal realizado en el segundo semestre del 2013, donde se evaluaron por conveniencia 218 participantes: 141 estudiantes y 77 docentes; a quienes se les aplicó el cuestionario IPAQ versión corta usando como definición de sedentarismo las personas clasificadas en nivel de actividad física leve. Resultados: En la población a estudio la prevalencia de sedentarismo fue del 28.8 % (n=63) según IPAQ; el resultado por subgrupos fue de 27.3 % y 31.6 % de estudiantes y docentes, respectivamente. Al evaluar las características sociodemográficas, estado nutricional, consumo de alcohol, tabaquismo y obesidad abdominal no se encontró ningún factor asociado estadísticamente significativo. Conclusiones: Los resultados de este estudio sugieren que la población es menos sedentaria que la reportada en estudios previos