Abstract: According to legal positivists like Raz and Kelsen, natural law theorists deny the legal validity of unjust laws. John Finnis, presumably one of the most prominent defenders of the natural law tradition in recent years, famously argues against this claim. In this essay I argue against Finnis's defence of the classical natural law tradition. In particular, I argue that Finnis fails to show that the positivist objection against natural law theories misfires. After reviewing the works of Thomas Aquinas and Francisco Suárez, I conclude that the legal validity objection posed by positivists could very well be applicable to the naturalist theories of both Aquinas and Suárez, because of which Finnis is wrong in his defence. Resumen: De acuerdo con positivistas como Raz y Kelsen, los iusnaturalistas niegan la validez legal de las leyes injustas. John Finnis, quizás uno de los más famosos defensores del derecho natural clásico en años recientes, famosamente afirma que los positivistas se equivocan a este respecto. En este ensayo argumento que la defensa que hace Finnis del derecho natural falla. Tras revisar las obras de Tomás de Aquino y De Francisco Suárez, concluyo que la objeción realizada por los positivistas podría aplicarse a las teorías de tanto Aquino como Suárez, por lo cual la defensa de Finnis es errónea.

Abstract: This research questions how ‘human rights’ are used in a parliamentary inquiry on the coercive or involuntary sterilisation of people with disabilities in Australia. Throughout three chapters, the thesis breaks down ‘human rights’ as a concept and as a practical approach in development programming. Chapter two delves into the multiple understandings of rights in the development literature and incorporates contributions from legal anthropology and the field of the social studies of science and technology to understand human rights in the development context. Chapter three proposes an “ethnography in the archives” as a methodological design that pushes disciplinary boundaries to understand the value of documents and arguments in how different stakeholders inside and outside of the development field engage with issues such as the coercive sterilisation of people with disabilities. Finally, chapter four offers an analysis derived from 82 documents presented in the parliamentary inquiry in Australia. This chapter shows this thesis’s main argument: That human rights differ from what this research calls ‘everyday rights’, which are the claims articulated by people drawing upon their lived experiences rather than human rights treaties or arguments. This argument sheds light on how development practice often faces a gap between what the stated outcomes are in terms of Human Rights-Based Approaches and the practical realities of rights claims. Resumen: Esta investigación cuestiona cómo se utilizan los 'derechos humanos' en una investigación parlamentaria sobre la esterilización coercitiva o involuntaria de personas con discapacidad en Australia. A lo largo de tres capítulos, la tesis desglosa los 'derechos humanos' como concepto y como enfoque práctico en el mundo del desarrollo. El capítulo dos profundiza en las múltiples interpretaciones de los derechos en la literatura sobre desarrollo e incorpora contribuciones de la antropología jurídica y el campo de los estudios sociales de la ciencia y la tecnología para comprender los derechos humanos en el contexto del desarrollo. El capítulo tres propone una “etnografía en los archivos” como un diseño metodológico que traspasa los límites disciplinarios para comprender el valor de los documentos y argumentos sobre cómo diferentes actores dentro y fuera del campo del desarrollo se involucran con temas como la esterilización forzada de personas con discapacidad. Finalmente, el capítulo cuatro ofrece un análisis derivado de 82 documentos presentados en la investigación parlamentaria en Australia. Este capítulo muestra el argumento principal de esta tesis: que los derechos humanos difieren de lo que esta investigación llama “derechos cotidianos”, que son los reclamos articulados por personas basándose en sus experiencias vividas en lugar de tratados o argumentos de derechos humanos. Este argumento arroja luz sobre cómo la práctica del desarrollo a menudo enfrenta una brecha entre los resultados esperados de los enfoques basados en los derechos humanos y las realidades prácticas de los reclamos de derechos.

Abstract: The research studies the role of Architects performing as Design Managers in construction projects. It reflects on the industry’s shifting environment, where architects, once central members in project delivery, are increasingly being displaced by new disciplines, technicians and suppliers. The dissertation identifies Design Management, a function of Project Management, as a strategic position from which architects can improve projects’ value. As Design Managers, architects can integrate their knowledge in space creation with Project Management skills to improve project performance in terms of budget, schedule, and spatial, social and environmental qualities. The role was studied through two case studies; two stations for UK’s High-Speed 2 (HS2) programme: The redevelopment of Euston Station in London, and the new station development at Old Oak Common. Data was collected from nine semi-structured interviews with Design Managers and design team members working on one of these projects. The research findings indicated that projects as large and complex as these require Design Managers from multiple backgrounds, among which architects have significant opportunities to increase value capture. Although the role is mostly concerned with Project Management tasks, the Design Manager’s background -in this case, architecture- enables them to increase value capture beyond projects’ basic requirements. Architects as Design Managers can integrate multidisciplinary designs considering how they can improve users’ experience and the project’s connection to their communities and environment to create more human and inviting projects with a long-term value perspective. Resumen: La investigación estudia el rol de los arquitectos desempeñándose como gestores de diseño en proyectos de construcción. Es una reflexión en el entorno cambiante de la industria en donde los arquitectos, alguna vez actores centrales del desarrollo de proyectos, han sido gradualmente desplazados por otras disciplinas, técnicos y proveedores. Esta tesis identifica la Gestión de Diseño, una función de Gestión de proyectos, como una posición estratégica dese la que los arquitectos pueden mejorar el valor de los proyectos. Como Gestores de Diseño, los arquitectos pueden integrar su conocimiento en creación de espacio con habilidades de Gestión de Proyectos para mejorar el desempeño de los proyectos en términos de presupuesto, cronograma y calidad espacial, social y ambiental. El rol se estudió a través de dos casos de estudio; dos estaciones para el programa de El tren de alta velocidad HS2 en Reino Unido: El desarrollo de la estación de Euston en Londres y el nuevo desarrollo de la estación Old Oak Common. Los datos se recolectaron a partir de nueve entrevistas semi-estructuradas con gestores de diseño y otros profesionales participando en estos proyectos. Los hallazgos indicaron que los proyectos de esta escala y complejidad requieren gestores de diseño con múltiples trayectorias profesionales, entre los cuales, los arquitectos tienen una oportunidad significativa de capturar valor. Aunque el rol está en gran parte asociado a tareas de Gestión de Proyectos, la experiencia del profesional desempeñándolo -en este caso, arquitectura- permite la captura de valor por encima de los requerimientos básicos del proyecto. Los arquitectos como gestores de diseño pueden integrar diseños multidisciplinarios, considerando como mejorar la experiencia de los usuarios, y la integración del proyecto con sus comunidades y su entorno para generar proyectos más humanos, acogedores y con una perspectiva de valor a largo plazo.

Abstract: Interventions of the built environment at the neighborhood level allow for evaluating the effects of these changes on sociodemographic variables of the residents. In 2011, the local mayor's office of Medellín-Colombia began the construction of outdoor escalators in Las Independencias neighborhood to improve transportation times for its residents. This study assesses the effect of urban renewal on the violence and average income of Las Independencias. Mixed methods are used, employing a quasi-experimental design in which the synthetic control method is utilized to estimate the causal effect and a thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews is applied to identify mechanisms of change. To assess the impact on the homicides per km2, 14 neighborhoods are used in the donor pool and 10 neighborhoods for the average household income. Regarding the qualitative methods, 10 semi-structured interviews were analyzed with an average of 24 minutes. It was not possible to draw causal effect conclusions of the effect of the change in built environment over homicides due to a poor fit of the pre-intervention trends. However, one year before the intervention, Las Independencias had a homicide rate of .118 per km2 (way above synthetic Las Independencias 0.0981) and one year after the intervention this rate was (.0157373) below the synthetic control (0.049). The residents of the neighborhood perceive that crime has decreased in recent years and attribute the change to the investment in the escalators, which has generated a chain of events that over time had a positive impact on security. The mechanisms through which the escalators produced this impact are identified in the interviews: the strengthening of social efficacy, greater police and State presence, greater job opportunities, reduction of relative depravity and the interest of the Combos in maintaining security. Regarding the average household income, the quantitative results estimate that in the period immediately after the construction of the stairs, the income of Las Independencias decreased more than that of the synthetic control, indicating a negative effect. From 2013 to 2016 there is evidence of a positive trend, but it is still below the synthetic control and only in 2017 is there a positive effect compared to the synthetic Las Independencias. In 2019, a significant drop in income is observed compared to the synthetic control. The qualitative results indicate that the impact of the escalators was consolidated until 2016 with a greater influx of tourists. Residents believe that economic opportunities have improved, the quality of life has increased, and the neighborhood has become an ""economic paradise."" The dependence on tourism meant that in 2019 COVID strongly affected the finances of the neighborhood, which is reflected in the quantitative results. The results of this study show that in the context of low and middle-income countries, low-cost structural interventions can be conducted that impact people's quality of life, their possibilities to generate income, and their security.

Abstract: The promotion of education as a human right became part of the discourse of international aid agencies and banks since the end of WWII. Consequently, studies of development have examined the conditions under which education becomes a driver of socio-economic progress under three theories: “modernization”, “human capital”, and “dependency”. Previous research has not agreed on the impact of education on inequalities and mainly adopted a quantitative approach. This dissertation implements a mixed-methods approach to examine context-specific variables in comparative education with the “dependency” theory. The outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020 generated great losses in human capital accumulation. In Latin America, one of the most unequal regions in the world, the impact of school disruption increased drop-out rates and forced governments to generate measures to mitigate learning losses. This dissertation examines through a comparative analysis to what extent remote learning policies implemented during COVID-19 reduced inequality gaps in Chile and Colombia, with a particular focus on secondary education. Moreover, as intervening variables, it selects two neoliberal characteristics: privatization and government intervention. Colombia and Chile implemented multimodal education policies during COVID-19. However, in Colombia, school closures lasted longer than in Chile. The PISA exam forecast of the World Bank also suggests that education inequality gaps in secondary education increased after the pandemic, with greater inequalities in Colombia. Moreover, the Gini coefficient shows that Colombia has been more unequal than Chile before and after COVID-19. Lastly, the analysis of the intervening variables shows that remote learning policies were unable to reduce inequalities and mainly favoured private institutions and urban areas. Finally, as part of the lessons, this research suggests that the neo-liberal characteristics of both countries marked a difference in the implementation of policies. Moreover, the lack of information incentivised the adoption of good practices that become suitable policy alternatives when adapted to local needs. Lastly, this research evidences the need for LAC to include technological tools in their education systems to respond to future crises.

Abstract: Liquid Homes is a study about migration based on social sciences theories, contemporary films, and my personal experiences. Within this understanding of migration, the concept of Home is identified as a physical and imaginary place pertaining to all individual of society, to which civil rights and urbanism are related, and which is in constant tension in a global system because of the processes of modernity, the development of industrialisation and capitalism. In this text an analysis of contemporary migration is proposed throughout films produced during the European migrant crisis (2015- ), to do a critical analysis about the approach and representation in films of the migrant population and to suggest recognition, humanism and familiarity with migrant communities and their civil rights. It was my last evening in Lisbon crossing the Tejo river in a ferry going to the other side of the city. We came over the second floor and sat down on the chairs with the windows facing the sunset. She was looking at messages on her mobile phone, while I was looking at the colour and shadows projected on her face. Suddenly she surprised and said: A bomb has exploded in the main harbour of Beirut. It is when this story about Liquid Homes started. Until this moment I had not any mental map of Lebanon, I knew it was part of the „Middle East” region with an Arabic culture. She told me she has some friends in Beirut because she was doing her field based research thesis in a Palestinian Refugee Camp called Shatila. I guess that the mixture of feelings between her and me at that moment have impressed in my memory the need to understand Shatila. Feelings about the beginning and the finishing of new stages of our lives, moving again of (from/to) homes, in different non-established houses, around different people, different languages and geographies. In my case, feelings of coming back to a place with legal rules made to make it the hardest for foreigners and for their establishment of a normal life, a hostile place in an economic way, where you are not welcome if you are not coming to produce or give money to the society. With the time I have understood that Shatila is a “Liquid Home” for its inhabitants. As a “new city” is for migrants. A “Liquid Home” is a place for waiting - for the return or for continuing towards the desired land and the desired lifestyle, with the difference that for people in Shatila and their parents before them were born there, but they do not have legal right over the land nor over pretty much anything in the place they inhabit. I identify a liquid home as the space constructed to be easily changed according to political international movements, according to the economic profit of international relationships under the flagship of solidarity. An artificial urbanization made with modular materials to be easily moved and articulated, where the architecture of the houses, of the streets, of the daily human relations can be withdrawn from their users as an expropriation not just of their houses but as well of their civil rights. As a nobody, who occupy the territory, liquid homes are a result of liquid societies, a modernisation of the urban lifestyle understood within Zygmunt Bauman’s analysis of the late modernity, where the reality of the inhabitants of the society is made to allow constant and contrasting changes. The objective of this writing is to describe how the phenomenon of migration, cities and citizenship have been told in cinema from 2015 until now, and to analyse different approaches, methods of research and filming migration and the noncitizenship, using cinema as a cultural expression that reflects the modern thinking and troubles of a migration society. I will also use personal notes as an ethnographic research method, reflecting my experience as a foreigner and all that not having a citizenship in the place where I live has meant.

Abstract: Background: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery is a treatment in the advanced stage of Parkinson's disease (PD). Despite close follow-up, multiple evaluations, and several months of timeconsuming programming sessions, the clinical response may not be optimal in some cases. Imageguided programming (I-GP) could help optimize programming sessions with better clinical outcomes. Objective: To evaluate clinical and quality of life (QoL) outcomes with I-GP in PD patients with DBS of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and suboptimal clinical improvement and refractory symptoms to conventional clinical programming. Methods: A prospective study in 16 patients with a diagnosis of PD with STN-DBS and remaining adverse effects or symptoms despite a clinical programming adjustment. We simulate potentially effective stimulation based on volume tissue activated (VTA) using commercially available software tools. Clinical outcomes were assessed with motor and quality of life scales. Results: The most frequent suboptimal symptom was gait disorder 33.3% (n=9), residual motor symptoms 25.9%(n=7), and speech 25.9%(n=7). Statistically significant results (p=0.001) were found after I-GP with change in the global Deep Brain Stimulation – Impairment score (41%), The 8- item version of the Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire (47%), EuroQol visual analogue scale (62%), and motor scale (24%). Conclusions: In suboptimal cases of patients with PD and STN-DBS, especially with ongoing and residual motor symptoms, I-GP could be useful to optimize the programming of DBS and improve patients' QoL.

Abstract: A broad number of studies have used multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) to track spatial representations such as position from human brain activity. While decoding spatial features has provided important insights on how working memory tracks representations, some studies have demonstrated that decoding spatial features can also be influenced by eye movements and spatial attention. This implies that EEG signals can be biased by the oculomotor system (e.g., is MVPA detecting neural representations or different eye-movement patterns?). Thus, decoding elements that are not defined by spatial factors and/or eye movements, like colour, can be an important proof-ofprinciple that neural representation can be decoded from electroencephalography (EEG). Even though few studies have decoded colour from EEG, it is still unclear whether using different features from EEG signals (e.g., Oscillations and ERPs) may carry different representations (e.g., position vs colour), and if different pre-processing methods and machine learning techniques may improve accuracy levels. Therefore, the purpose of this project is to determine whether colour and position can be decoded separately from various features of human electroencephalography (EEG) using different machine learning methods. Resumen: Varias investigaciones han utilizado el análisis de patrones multivariados (MVPA) para rastrear representaciones espaciales desde la memoria de trabajo humana como la posición de un objeto. Si bien la decodificación de características espaciales ha brindado información importante sobre cómo la memoria de trabajo rastrea representaciones visuales, algunos estudios han demostrado que la decodificación de características espaciales también puede verse influenciada por los movimientos oculares y la atención espacial. Esto implica que las señales de EEG pueden estar sesgadas por el sistema oculomotor (p. ej., ¿MVPA detecta representaciones neuronales o diferentes patrones del movimiento ocular?). Por lo tanto, la decodificación de elementos que no están definidos por factores espaciales y/o movimientos oculares, como el color, puede ser una importante prueba de que la representación neuronal se puede decodificar a partir de la electroencefalografía (EEG). Aunque algunos cuantos estudios han decodificado el color usando EEG, todavía no está claro si el uso de diferentes características de las señales de EEG (p. ej., oscilaciones y ERP) puede tener diferentes representaciones (p. ej., posición frente a color), y si los diferentes métodos de preprocesamiento y aprendizaje automático pueden mejorar los niveles de precisión. Por lo tanto, el propósito de este proyecto es determinar si el color y la posición se pueden decodificar utilizando varias características de la electroencefalografía humana (EEG) y diferentes métodos de machine learning.

Resumen: Informed by broad social assumptions, transport planning has traditionally obliged to the travel needs of the average (Levy, 2013b). In this process, children’s imaginaries and aspirations have been overlooked and dominated by an adult world were mobility is regarded as going efficiently from A to B. Challenging this view, this research considers children’s mobility as a practice that involves walking, playing and socialising, and the means by which children ‘perceive, feel and act in the world’ (Lester and Russell, 2010). Thus, it recognises children’s everyday pedestrian practices, and greater independence significantly contributes to their wellbeing and participation in urban life. Given the lack of attention to children’s independent mobility and play in the global south, this study analyses their impressions in a low-income neighbourhood in Cali, Colombia. Through a socio-ecological framework that incorporates the concepts of attachment and affordance, the study explores independent license, walking perceptions and experiences, community ties and sociability. Findings suggest that in this context, independence is the result of constant negotiations between children, parents and household dynamics. Unlike many cities in the global north, while children have high levels of independence for essential journeys, their freedom to roam, play and socialise is more restricted. While road safety has an important role in their perceptions, the changing circumstances in the social environment with high levels of crime and violence are crucial determinants in their participation in the neighbourhood in terms of play and social engagement. Policies should promote greater freedom and playability through strategies that facilitate rich social and physical affordances with a focus on community participation and the reivindication of the street as a meeting place. Resumen: Informada por amplios supuestos sociales, la planificación del transporte tradicionalmente ha atendido las necesidades de viaje de las personas promedio (Levy, 2013b). En este proceso, los imaginarios y aspiraciones de los niños han sido ignorados y dominados por un mundo adulto donde se considera a la movilidad como ir eficientemente de A a B. Retando esta visión, esta investigación considera la movilidad de los niños como una práctica que implica caminar, jugar y socializar, y el medio por el cual los niños 'perciben, sienten y actúan en el mundo' (Lester y Russell, 2010). Por lo tanto, reconoce que las prácticas peatonales cotidianas de los niños son importantes y una mayor independencia puede contribuir significativamente a su bienestar y participación en la vida urbana y comunitaria. Dada la falta de atención a la movilidad y el juego autónomo de los niños en el sur global, este estudio analiza sus experiencias en el Distrito de Aguablanca, Cali, Colombia. A través de un marco socioecológico que incorpora los conceptos de apego y potencialidad, el estudio explora la licencia independiente, las percepciones y experiencias al caminar, los lazos comunitarios y la sociabilidad. Los hallazgos sugieren que, en este contexto, la independencia resulta de negociaciones constantes entre los jóvenes, los cuidadores y las dinámicas del hogar. En este sentido, a diferencia de muchas ciudades del norte global, mientras que los niños tienen altos niveles de independencia para viajes esenciales, su libertad para deambular, jugar y socializar está restringida. Si bien la seguridad vial tiene un papel importante en sus percepciones, las circunstancias cambiantes en el entorno social en términos de altos niveles de delincuencia y violencia determinan su participación en el barrio en relación al juego y la interacción social. Las políticas deben promover una mayor libertad y oportunidades para el juego, a través de estrategias que faciliten ricas potencialidades sociales y físicas con un enfoque en la participación comunitaria y la apropiación de la calle como lugar de encuentro.

Abstract: The subject of State capacity is a commonplace object of study in the social sciences which in the last few years has garnered more attention from the fields of social research and economics. As state capacity has a close relationship with development the question of how state capacity affects the development of a territory merits our attention. The present work therefore focuses on Colombia’s Regions, specifically using as a unit of analysis the 32 departments into which they are divided. Data on Colombia’s municipalities from the CEDE have been used to construct 4 indexes: Fiscal, Violence, Bureaucratic, and Operational. To create the indexes several variables have been selected and constructed with recourse to the Principal Component Analysis. However, as GDP data are unavailable at the municipal level, Night Time Lights (NTL) data are used as a proxy for economic development. Using a regression model showing the extent to which state capacity indices correlate with economic development as measured by NTL, while conducting robustness checks so as to confirm the expected results, we conclude that where state capacity is greater, then more development is expected.