In the last 60 years different efforts have been made for the construction of a metro system in Bogotá yet the closer the city has got to building a large transport project was with the implementation of a Bus Rapid Transport System in 1999 called Transmilenio. Transmilenio was a success at the beginning and it helped organize the chaotic transport system of the city, but at the moment it is suffering from capacity and operational problems and the need for a rail base system is evident. The current governments of Bogotá and Colombia have promised to begin the construction of the first line of the metro in the following years. Bogotá and London are two cities with similar characteristics such as population, area, density and type of soil; furthermore both cities are in the process of building a new mass transport system; in Bogotá the first line of the metro and in London Crossrail. London is a pioneer city in railways and metro systems in the world and has experience on the economic appraisal of this type of projects. In this dissertation we will use this experience to elaborate a Cost and Benefit Analysis model for the Bogotá metro. Cost and Benefit Analysis models are a common tool for the appraisal of transport and infrastructure project around the world and particularly in the UK. We have elaborated an appraisal tool for the decision makers of Colombia that involves the more important technical, social and economical aspects of the Bogotá metro project. After the evaluation of all the cost and benefits of the system and the preparation of a model with 3 different scenarios and 7 sensitivity tests the results shows that the project is completely feasible, it should be constructed and will bring benefits for the Colombian society.

Desde la fantasía y la magia de la creación indígena hasta la derrota del conquistador como resultado de la ambición y la destrucción, son algunos de los elementos que se combinan para ofrecer un nuevo comienzo a lo que hoy se llama Cultura Latinoamericana. Con el juego de formas, colores y sonido se produce un pieza en la que se busca el regreso a una identidad propia. Principales objetivos: Presentar tres escenarios de la civilización latinoamericana a través del uso de símbolos precolombinos, elementos históricos, el formato de cuento y la animación como medio de crítica política y social en contra de la discriminación cultural en Norte América. Entender el concepto de cultura como un evento cíclico de tesis, antitesis y síntesis. Crear una interpretación personal sobre lo que es la cultura en Latino América. Comentario Técnico: Tres historias para la creación es una producción bi y tridimensional que utiliza los programas de animación Maya y After effects como fuente principal para generar imágenes en continua transformación explorando el uso de máscaras de vectores y cámaras múltiples en el mismo cuadro. También explora el juego con el área de encuadre como un elemento variable que forma parte de la historia. Programas utilizados: Alias Wavefront Maya 3.0 Sensable Technologies Freeform 4.0 Adobe Photoshop 6.0 Adobe After effects 5.0 Final Cut Pro 2.0 Sound Edit 16 2.0 Adobe Ilustrator 10.0 Fractal Painter 6.0

The architectural design process is a negotiation between a problem and a solution through activities of analysis, synthesis and evaluation, it is characterised by being complex, with neither established nor mandatory patterns and methodologies. Design is an activity that involves constant and intensive decision-making processes in which designers, clients and users exchange knowledge and information in order to develop a solution for a given problem. However, these solutions do not always bring benefits to the client, causing dissatisfaction and creating problems for both clients and designers. These problems are mostly caused by the gaps between expectation and realisation on behalf of the client, often streaming from a lack of mutual knowledge between client and designer. Design and value management is a series of activities that can help designers to monitor, control and channel creativity in order to generate accurate, precise and valuable solutions for their client’s need. However, other design disciplines such as graphic and product design have different and valuable skills and methodologies that can contribute to this aim, helping architects to create proposals that will deliver longlasting benefits for both clients and end-users.

Combustion instabilities, induced by the resonant coupling of acoustics and combustion occur in many practical systems such as domestic boilers, gas turbine and rocket engines. They produce pressure and heat release fluctuations that in some extreme cases can provoke mechanical failure or catastrophic damage. These phenomena have been extensively studied in the past, and the basic driving and coupling mechanisms have already been identified. However, it is well known that most systems behave differently at cold start and in the permanent regime and the coupling between the temperature of the solid material and combustion instabilities still remains unclear. The aim of this thesis is to study this mechanism. This work presents an experimental investigation of combustion instabilities for a laminar premixed flame stabilized on a slot burner with controlled wall temperature. For certain operating conditions, the system exhibits a combustion instability locked on the Helmholtz mode of the burner. It is shown that this instability can be controlled and even suppressed by changing solely the temperature of the burner rim. A linear stability analysis is used to identify the parameters playing a role in the resonant coupling and retrieves the features observed experimentally. Detailed experimental studies of the different elementary processes involved in the thermo-acoustic coupling are used to evaluate the sensitivity of these parameters to the wall temperature. Finally a theoretical model of unsteady heat transfer from the flame root to the burner-rim and detailed experimental measurements permit to establish the physical mechanism for the temperature dependance on the flame response.

This dissertation critically examines the differentiation of Conflict IDPs (Desplazados) and Disaster IDPs (Damnificados) in Colombia, and the impact of label differentiation in the protection of their rights. The results presented in this study come entirely from a desk-based research, and will therefore focus on protection at a policy level. Based on Kälin’s Protection Cycle, this paper demonstrates how protection for both types of IDPs in Colombia is dealt with regardless of their label (prevention, assistance, and long term development), but discusses some of the remaining protection gaps.

Crime and violence have been regarded as one of the main obstacles to development in Latin America countries. Well-known researchers and institutions have studied the impact of violence on health and development in many countries of South America, showing violence as a two-fold constraint, to health and development. Since Colombia has been one of the countries most affected by violence, this dissertation studies violence at the national level and at the municipal level. This research uses a quantitative approach in order to reveal how violence has been occurring in Colombia. Likewise, it uses the city of Bucaramanga as a case study in order to understand how violence, low socioeconomic status and low academic levels are related.Crime and violence have been regarded as one of the main obstacles to development in Latin America countries. Well-known researchers and institutions have studied the impact of violence on health and development in many countries of South America, showing violence as a two-fold constraint, to health and development. Since Colombia has been one of the countries most affected by violence, this dissertation studies violence at the national level and at the municipal level. This research uses a quantitative approach in order to reveal how violence has been occurring in Colombia. Likewise, it uses the city of Bucaramanga as a case study in order to understand how violence, low socioeconomic status and low academic levels are related. This dissertation analyses how interpersonal and collective violence occurs in Colombia (2006 – 2009) and particularly in Bucaramanga (2006). It analyses violence by linking two main rising typologies in Colombia and their most common manifestations. Firstly, it looks at interpersonal violence through child abuse and intimate partner violence; secondly, it focuses on collective violence through homicides. Quantitative analysis is carried out through factors such as age, gender, perpetrators and time to measure manifestations at the national level and the municipal level (Bucaramanga). Furthermore, violence is mapped in Bucaramanga with the purpose of identifying where the most affected areas are. Similarly, it points out deprived areas of Bucaramanga by showing indicators such us socioeconomic status, academic level, public services coverage, which are also mapped. Finally, both maps are overlapped with the aim of understanding links between violence, socioeconomic status and academic level. The research carried out found that there is a close relationship between interpersonal and collective violence and across their manifestations. It also revealed that Bucaramanga shows the same patterns in interpersonal and collective violence as the national level with small variations. Moreover, the research found a close relation between violence, low socioeconomic status and low academic levels in Bucaramanga. This dissertation concludes reviewing successful policies implemented at the municipal level aimed at reducing violence. It uses the successful example of Medellín to recommend possible policies that could reduce crime and violence in Bucaramanga.

Arabinogalactan-proteins (AGPs) or proteoglycans in Green coffee beans (GCB) are characterized by their low levels of extraction. Previous work reported a yield of ~1,1% (w/w) of GCB using hot water extraction. This means over 92% AGP of the coffee beans remains in the residual cell wall material (RCWM) composed of cellulose and mannan. The aim of this research is to increase the extraction of AGP from green coffee beans, applying different extraction methods and to compare the methods based on their yield and the chemical composition of obtained fraction. AGP was extracted by: single extraction using (1) cold (4 °C) or (2) hot water (90°C), (3) enzymatic hydrolysis or by sequential extraction, starting with cold water, followed by (4) hot water or alkali (6M KOH) extraction and enzymatic hydrolysis. Extracted AGP was purified and recovered using a preparative anion exchange column (AEC). AGP fractions were identified with a Yariv radial gel diffusion assay. The highest extraction yield (8,7% AGP) was obtained through sequential extraction using alkali. In this method, the alkali extraction resulting in extraction of 57% of the total AGP extracted with the sequence followed by the enzymatic treatment with a 37%. Two main AGPs were obtained with AEC one unbound and the other bound (both showed positive reaction to Yariv reagent test). In order to elucidate the reasons of having these two different AGPs, molecular size was determined using HPSEC, but clear differences were not observed. A main peak with a molecular weight of 287 kDa was measured for both. Analysis carried out in the composition of AGPs confirmed the majority content of arabinose and galactose and the presence of proteins and uronic acids to a less extent. Protein content was on average 12% (w/w). The carbohydrate moiety accounted between 3 to 7% uronic acids with glucuronic acid being the most predominant. Effect of the extraction method on the structure was reflected in the variation of the ratio Galactose/Arabinose. For instance, AGP from cold water showed a ratio of 2.6 indicating its highly branched nature that eases its solubilization. In contrasts ratio of AGP from the enzymatic treatment in the sequential extraction was around 8, which means a poor branch structure. The difference in the ratios reflects the strength of the treatment applied in the composition of AGP. Therefore studies on the extraction of AGP from coffee beans have to be developed using milder methods to maintain the native structure of the AGP presences in the CWM and therefore reducing the side effects on its structure.

Energy systems entail a dualism: they are absolutely vital for the normal functioning of societies, but the activities related to them are threatening the stability of the natural environment where societies develop (by being the main source of greenhouse gas emissions). Therefore, energy systems need to be maintained and further expanded, whilst simultaneously reducing their negative environmental impacts. In this sense, a deeper understanding of the thermodynamic concepts behind energy use and conversion processes is needed. Exergy and useful work provide such an understanding and hence their analysis can be used as a tool for improved energy policy making, particularly when dealing with efficiency improvements. In consideration of the above, this dissertation first looks into the energy dualism, followed by the description of the conceptual framework which orientates the work. Subsequently this is applied to the analysis of Colombia as an illustrative case study, taking into account data availability and specific features of that country’s energy system, which in themselves provide special analytical interest. Finally, this dissertation discusses methodological issues and results, as well as the energy policy implications derived from the analysis, both in general/conceptual terms and in the specific case of Colombia. As a result, it was found that exergy and useful work analysis is a tool that can complement traditional energy analysis when assessing national energy systems. Exergy and useful work provide significant conceptual improvements, as well as strengthening the comprehension of the whole flow of energy through society. Furthermore, exergy and useful work analysis leads to different energy policy recommendations when compared to the traditional energy based analysis, particularly regarding energy sources for electricity generation, efficiency dilution effects and leapfrogging opportunities.

In 2007, the European Commission recognized “Café de Colombia” as the first non-European Protected Geographical Indication. It was the result of longstanding advertising efforts promoting the Colombian Coffee as a synonym of quality, particularly guaranteeing its singleorigin. Around the indication “Café de Colombia”, economical, cultural, political and social benefits have been achieved. Consequently, this case demonstrates the relevance of indications of geographical origin (IGOs), and the need for adequate measures of protection. Nevertheless, this case also reveals the inconvenient regulation of the TRIPS Agreement regarding this matter. First, the paper demonstrates that the TRIPS Agreement allows the registration of individual Trademarks (TMs) containing or consisting of IGOs, which leads to a symbiosis between two incompatible regimes. As a result, the TRIPS Agreement makes feasible the monopolization of IGOs through TM registration. It also godfathers the potential misleading use of TMs regarding the geographical origin of the products. To support these assertions, it is required to draw a parallel between TM law and the IGO regime. It is also relevant to present the variety of means of protection that national jurisdictions might adopt to implement the TRIPS Agreement, avoiding the registration of individual TMs. Second, the document highlights the discriminatory regulation adopted by the TRIPS Agreement on IGOs, favoring indications for wines and spirits. It studies the origins of such a discriminatory system of protection, to demonstrate that no plausible justification lies on it. Therefore, this paper advocates for the extension of the protection currently reserved to indications for wines and spirits. In doing so, the analysis of “Café de Colombia” results even more eloquent because Colombia, a country famous for its coffee rather than for its production of wines and spirits (in which it has no tradition at all), is part of the opponent group, advocating for the discriminatory two-tiered system adopted by the TRIPS Agreement.

OBJECTIVES: Unintentional asphyxia among preadolescents and adolescents by compression of the neck and other means of inducing hypoxia / anoxia in order to get exhilarating effects are not new or uncommon behaviors and can lead to death by accident. Medical science has described autoerotic asphyxiation and more recently asphyxial games “choking games” as different entities. This study addresses both behaviors to understand the characteristics of how these practices are presented as well as the risks factors to them in order to determine if there are substantial differences between the two practices, or if instead they are related behaviors. Accurate knowledge of these behaviors based on scientific evidence will facilitate the understanding of the etiology and manifested features and facilitate the implementation of preventive measures to avoid such deaths. METHODS: A retrospective study of fatal cases published in recognized scientific journal articles of both autoerotic asphyxiation and choking game behaviors in the adolescent population was made. Articles on sociology, psychoanalysis and psychiatry as well as studies previously published case series and epidemiological studies to assess student population etiological factors and risk factors associated with behaviors were included in this review. Features of both behaviors, such as prevalence, age distribution, gender, type of asphyxia and place of occurrence are presented. RESULTS: The results are consistent in all variables analyzed for both behaviors. Most practitioners are men. Cases of both behaviors in preadolescence show a tendency to increase with age. The most frequent type of asphyxia identified was hanging conducted in private quarters. Psychiatric and psychoanalytic literature identifies common elements between male castration complex, failed oral psychosexual development and the practice of asphyxia in its integration with sociological theories of risk and confrontation ordeal in adolescence. The review of epidemiological studies reveals common elements in the development of both practices in terms of risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence suggests a link between both practices and allows to theorize that they are part of the same syndrome. Integrating psychoanalytic and sociological concepts as well as the risk factors suggests a linear sequential model of development in four stages: childhood syndrome rope, asphyxial games associated to masturbation, Adolescent autoerotic asphyxia and Adult Autoerotic Asphyxia fetishist / bondage Syndrome. Death is explained in each of the stages as failed physiological and emotional adaptation mechanisms. It is important to disseminate knowledge of these practices among health professionals and further studies should be carried out in regarding deaths by hanging in children and adolescents.