Abstract: Stochastic time series methods for load forecasting are the traditional methods used by electric power companies [1] because they can model seasonal and stochastic behavior of the load [2]. A load time series has patterns that repeat at different time scales such as daily, weekly or yearly. These patterns indicate that load can be predicted and the shortest seasonality component has the highest effect on the forecast. There might be conditions in which load is in different time resolutions, has a different amount of missing data or is under special events such as COVID-19 pandemic. Load forecasting methods should be able to perform well under these circumstances. On the other hand, neural networks are a wide research topic, they can learn [3] and have low forecasting errors [4]. In this work we explain the main characteristics of load demand in time, load forecasting and we compare stochas-tic time series methods with neural networks for load forecasting in terms of the error with respect to the real load. Resumen: Los métodos de series de tiempo estocásticos para pronósticos de carga son los métodos tradicionales usados por compañías de energía eléctrica [1] porque pueden modelar el comportamiento estocástico y estacional de la carga [2]. Una serie de tiempo de carga tiene patrones que se repiten en diferentes escalas de tiempo como diaria, semanal o anual. Estos patrones indican que la carga puede ser predicha y que el componente de estacionalidad más corto tiene el efecto más grande en el pronóstico. Pude que haya condiciones en las cuales la carga este en diferentes resoluciones de tiempo, tenga una diferente cantidad de datos faltantes o este bajo eventos especiales como la pandemia COVID-19. Los métodos de pronóstico de carga deberían ser capaces de llevarse a cabo bien bajo estas circunstancias. Por otra parte, las redes neuronales son un tema de investigación amplio, ellas pueden aprender [3] y tienen errores de pronóstico bajos [4]. En este trabajo explicamos las principales características de la demanda de carga en el tiempo, pronósticos de carga y comparamos métodos de serie de tiempo estocásticos con redes neuronales para pronósticos de carga en términos del error con respecto a la carga real. [1] H. Wang, B.-S. Li, X.-Y. Han, D.-L. Wang and H. Jin, "Study of Neural Networks for Electric Power Load Forecasting," Third International Symposium on Neural Networks - Advances in Neural Networks - ISNN 2006, Proceedings, Part II, pp. 1277-1283, 2006. [2] K. Berk, Modeling and Forecasting Electricity Demand, Siegen: Springer Spektrum, 2015. [3] H. Alfares and N. Mohammad, "Electric load forecasting: Literature survey and classification of methods," International Journal of Systems Science - IJSySc. 33, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 23-34, 2002. [4] M. Singh and R. Maini, "Various Electricity Load Forecasting Techniques with Pros and Cons," International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE), vol. 8, pp. 220-229, 2020.

Resumen: De acuerdo con la información suministrada por el Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre Cambio Climático (IPCC), la temperatura media del planeta ha aumentado 1°C desde el periodo industrial (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, 2017a). Así, de seguir con las tendencias actuales de emisiones contaminantes la temperatura media en todo el mundo se incrementará en más de 4°C y, en consecuencia, aumentará la probabilidad de que se manifiesten impactos severos e irreversibles a causa del clima, como los desastres naturales, la pérdida de ecosistemas, la inseguridad alimentaria, entre otros. Como resultado de investigación se logró consolidar una síntesis que integra los conceptos de apropiación social del conocimiento, gobernanza, y cambio climático. Propiamente en Colombia, se requieren fortalecer procesos de gobierno con una base de acción pública más cooperativa, y caracterizada por un trabajo más horizontal que vertical, donde confluyan una cantidad de actores e instituciones. En lo que concierne al cambio climático, las circunstancias actuales reflejan que el país podría estar lejos de cumplir las cifras pactadas y que requiere fortalecer iniciativas que apoyen las acciones de mitigación y adaptación. Asimismo, se destaca que se consiguió diseñar una estrategia para soportar un proceso de apropiación social del conocimiento que facilita la generación y uso del conocimiento en cambio climático, y que propende a un buen modelo de gobernanza en Colombia. Previo a este diseño, se evidenció que la apropiación y educación sobre el cambio climático y el desarrollo sostenible también resalta por la diversidad de enfoques de enseñanza y aprendizaje. Finalmente, la validación de la estrategia propuesta permitió llegar a inferencias relacionadas sobre su aplicación dentro de un contexto real, y analizar su viabilidad por medio de una recopilación de evidencia que respalda su interpretación, resultados, y conclusiones. Abstract: According to the information provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the average temperature of the planet has increased by 1°C since the industrial era. Thus, if the current trends in pollutant emissions continue, the average temperature worldwide will increase by over 4°C and, the probability of severe and irreversible impacts caused by weather changes also will rise, such as natural disasters, loss of ecosystems, food availability, among others (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, 2017a). As one of the main results, a research synthesis integrating the concepts of social appropriation of knowledge, governance, and climate change was conducted. In the Colombian context, it is necessary to strengthen government processes with a public action founded on horizontal rather than vertical structures, where several actors and institutions converge. Regarding climate change, the current circumstances reflect that the country may be far from fulfilling its commitments and that it needs to strengthen initiative that support mitigation and adaptation actions. A strategy was also designed to support a process of social appropriation of knowledge that facilitates the generation and use of knowledge on climate change, and that also integrates and strengthens good governance actions in Colombia. Prior to this design, it became clear that the appropriation of knowledge on climate change and sustainable development is also highlighted by the diversity of teaching and learning approaches. Finally, the validation of the proposed strategy made it possible to draw related inferences about its application as a support for a process of social appropriation of knowledge and governance in the face of climate change within a real context, and to analyze its viability through a collection of evidence that supports results and conclusions.

Abstract: This project revises the 3D conceptual model for the Hvíthólar sub-area in the South Zone of Krafla Geothermal Field. Hvíthólar is one of 6 sub-areas in south Krafla, located at the intersection of the south boundary of Krafla caldera, striking E-W, and the NNE-SSW oriented fissure swarms of the North Volcanic Zone. The model developed in this study extends along Vestursvæði, Þríhvrningar, Hvíthólar and Sandabotnaskarð sub-areas with a combined area of around 30 km2. Hvíthólar is the only southern sub-area connected to Krafla power station and has exhibited a considerable production decline over the period of 1990 – 2013. According to a lumped simulation, the Hvíthólar reservoir follows a two tank open system with a volume of 6.00004 km3. The Hvíthólar enthalpy is approximately 1200 kJ/kg; chemically it presents a low concentration of Cl−, and high CO2. To date, most studies support the hypothesis that Hvíthólar characteristics and behaviour are due to the lack of a heat recharge and that the sub-area is in a phase of waning or even becoming extinct. An improved understanding of heat source location and permeability variations will provide the basis of future utilisation decisions. This study presents two alternative conceptual models for Hvíthólar in addition the existing one, as a means to test the current conceptual model in order to determine the potential to extend the life of the asset. An update of the geological model was carried out based on data from shallow and deep wells along the southern part of Krafla geothermal field. This update combined with existing data from surface exploration was used to generate three conceptual models in Leapfrog Geothermal. The models focus on the location of heat source, and the permeability variation at the intersection between caldera boundary and fissure swarm. Each of the models are validated with TOUGH2 simulations. Resumen: Este proyecto revisa el modelo conceptual 3D para la subárea Hvíthólar en la Zona Sur del Campo Geotérmico Krafla. Hvíthólar es una de las 6 subáreas en el sur de Krafla, ubicada en la intersección del límite sur de la caldera de Krafla, con rumbo E-O, y los enjambres de fisuras orientados NNE-SSO de la Zona Volcánica Norte. El modelo desarrollado en este estudio se extiende a lo largo de las subáreas Vestursvæði, Þríhvrningar, Hvíthólar y Sandabotnaskarð con un área combinada de alrededor de 30 km2. Hvíthólar es la única subárea sur conectada a la central de energía de Krafla y ha mostrado una disminución considerable de la producción durante el período 1990 - 2013. Según una simulación de lumped, el reservorio de Hvíthólar sigue un sistema abierto de dos tanques con un volumen de 6.00004 km3. La entalpía de Hvíthólar es de aproximadamente 1200 kJ / kg; químicamente presenta una baja concentración de Cl−, y alta concentración de CO2. Hasta la fecha, la mayoría de los estudios apoyan la hipótesis de que las características y el comportamiento de Hvíthólar se deben a la falta de una recarga de calor y que la subárea se encuentra en una fase de menguante o incluso de extinción. Un mejor entendimiento de la ubicación de la fuente de calor y las variaciones de permeabilidad en el campo proporcionarán la base de futuras decisiones de utilización. Este estudio presenta dos modelos conceptuales alternativos para Hvíthólar además del existente, como un medio para probar el modelo conceptual actual con el fin de determinar el potencial para extender la vida útil del activo. Una actualización del modelo geológico basado en datos de pozos poco profundos y profundos a lo largo de la parte sur del campo geotérmico Krafla fue realizada. Esta actualización, combinada con los datos existentes de la exploración de la superficie, se utilizó para generar tres modelos conceptuales en3D utilizando Leapfrog Geothermal. Los modelos se centran en la ubicación de la fuente de calor y la variación de la permeabilidad en la intersección entre el límite de la caldera y el enjambre de fisuras. Cada uno de los modelos está validado con simulaciones TOUGH2.

Abstract: CO2 emissions in recent years have reached the highest levels historically, with peaks in 2018 and stabilization in 2020 due to the pandemic. Construction and materials production is among the most contributing industries to the greenhouse gas emission (GHG) effect. Architectural design has become an essential tool to face this environmental problem, just like civil engineering with creating, manipulating, and implementing less toxic and harmful building materials, and the energy consumption control in the structure's life cycle, becoming strategies for the significant reduction of anthropogenic emissions. Charcoal manages to store 50% of its carbon content for centuries, while Biochar, due to its pyrolysis production process and natural decomposition, releases up to 90% of carbon in the first ten years. Biochar, the solid subproduct of the pyrolysis process, is widely considered an effective water retention composite thanks to its morphology and high surface area. The opportunity of using it to improve the mechanical properties and achieve rheological requirements in cement pastes and cement mortar on a micro-scale is explored in this study. The results have demonstrated that with small percentages (1 - 5% and 7%) of Biochar used as a filler and substitution by cement weight in the sample preparation process, not only the compressive and flexural strength are increasing, but also the fracture energy, with a more tortuous crack path that increases the final fracture surface at an early age of maturation. However, this same behavior is not reflected at a late maturation age since there is an enhancement compared to the plain cement samples, but not as significant as that which occurs at an early maturation. In cement paste samples, Biochar used as 2% filler by cement weight can increase by 63% and 23% the flexural and compressive strength after 7-days of curing, respectively, while 29% and 13% the flexural and compressive strength after 28-days of curing, respectively. When taking about fracture energy and ductility factor, the behavior still being positive, with an improvement of 124% and 18% respectively after 7-days of curing, while 150% and 14% respectively after 28-days of curing. In cement mortar samples, Biochar was used as a filler and as substitution by cement weight. In this case, the samples do not seem to follow the same trend or behavior as the cement paste, especially at a late maturity; the mechanical properties seem to remain the same as the plain mortar, close to about 6 MPa and 70 MPa at flexural and compressive strength, respectively. The rheological tests' experimental results suggest that the addition of Biochar can increase the consistency of cementitious paste at the fresh state (e.g., increase in plastic viscosity, shear stress, and yield stress) compared to the reference mixture, also offering a way to waste recycling. This main rheological parameter evaluated appears to increment as the addition of Biochar increments, making the sample more viscous. Biochar's effect in the cement matrix in main rheological properties depends on the sample's preparation and the agglomeration of the particles and their content in each preparation.

Abstract: The principal objective of this document is to describe some of the relationships and similarities between nostalgia and generativity, two constructs that have been studied separately but rarely together. In order to carry out the research, it has been made a narrative review of various theoretical and empirical articles on both concepts published in different multidisciplinary databases. After a brief synthesis of found literature, a reflective meta-reading was performed, revealing how nostalgia through its relationship with constructs linked to well-being could promote generativity and facilitate the disclosure of intentions and generative actions. Similarly, the review described how both notions are related to the strengthening of existential meaning and quality of life. Resumen: El presente documento tiene como objetivo principal describir algunas de las similitudes y relaciones que existen entre la nostalgia y la generatividad, dos constructos que han sido estudiados separadamente, pero pocas veces de manera conjunta. Para poder llevar a cabo la investigación, se ha realizado una revisión narrativa de varios artículos teóricos y empíricos sobre ambos conceptos que han sido publicados en diferentes bases de datos multidisciplinares. Luego de hacer una breve síntesis de lo encontrado, se realizó una metalectura reflexiva la cual, permitió evidenciar primeramente como la nostalgia a través de su relación con constructos ligados al bienestar pueden promover la generatividad, asimismo, facilita la divulgación de las intenciones y las acciones generativas. De igual manera, se describió como ambos conceptos están relacionados con el fortalecimiento del significado existencial y de la calidad de vida.

Abstract: The few existing studies on zero deverbal nominalizations (ZNs), in both English and Spanish have left aside the analysis of important attributes such as semantic denotations (e.g. product, events) and syntactic functions (e.g. argument-taking capacity). Consequently, various theoretical postulates regarding the properties and behavior of this kind of non-overt nominalizations need to be verified on a significant sample of empirical data. For such purpose, this computational linguistics study follows Borer [2013]’s distinction of Argument Structure Nominals (ASNs) and Referential Nominals (RNs), categories based on complex event nouns, which inherit the eventive structure of their base verbs, vs. result and simple event nouns that express a rather abstract or concrete result. This distinction is assumed as a classification task trained with two kinds of features (syntactic dependencies and distributional properties) extracted from a novel database of English and Spanish ZNs in sentence context. According to our findings, the highly ambiguous space of the nominal argument structure is better recognised by fine-grained syntactic relations and annotated semantic roles, while referential denotations are more efficiently differentiated with contextualized embeddings. Resumen: Los pocos estudios existentes sobre nominalizaciones deverbales cero (ZNs), tanto en inglés como en español, han dejado de lado el análisis de atributos importantes como las denotaciones semánticas (ej., producto, evento) y las funciones sintácticas (ej., realización de estructura argumental). En consecuencia, diversos postulados teóricos sobre las propiedades y el comportamiento de este tipo de nominalizaciones, sin marca morfológica, necesitan ser verificados sobre una muestra significativa de datos empíricos. Para ello, este estudio de lingüística computacional sigue la distinción de Borer [2013] sobre las nominalizaciones con estructura argumental (ASN) y las nominalizaciones referenciales (RN), categorías basadas en los sustantivos de eventos complejos, que heredan la estructura eventiva de sus verbos base, frente a los sustantivos de resultado y de evento simple que expresan un resultado más bien abstracto o concreto. Esta distinción se asume como una tarea de clasificación automática entrenada con dos tipos de rasgos (dependencias sintácticas y propiedades distributivas) extraídos de una novedosa base de datos en inglés y en español con ZNs en contexto oracional. Según nuestros resultados, la ambigüedad presente en la estructura argumental se reconoce mejor mediante relaciones sintácticas profundas y roles semánticos con anotación manual, mientras que las denotaciones referenciales se diferencian más eficientemente con embeddings contextualizados.

Abstract: This paper analyses the world-renowned enforcement pyramid model developed by Ayres and Braithwaite (1992) in their book Responsive regulation. Transcending the deregulation debate and its inherent limitations and assumptions in order to scrutinise from a theoretical perspective its potential effectiveness in enforcing regulation of collaborative platforms. Ayres and Braithwaite (1992) argue that their enforcement model will be effective for all types of regulatees across different industries. By undertaking a literature review of the enforcement pyramid and critically analysing the model, this paper will address the conditions required for its effectiveness by identifying the main assumptions that underpin the theoretical model. Additionally, this paper will uncover the essential characteristics of collaborative platforms and explain why these are different from traditional industries and markets. Afterwards, this work will assess if the conditions required for the effectiveness of the theoretical model are materialised in the concrete situation of the collaborative platforms. The main conclusions of this paper show that the enforcement pyramid may not be as universally applicable as Ayres and Braithwaite present it due to specific circumstances that must be fulfilled for its effectiveness, such as binary and personal relationships between regulators and regulatees, shared understandings regarding regulatory aims and standards, absence of resource constraints, and simple regulatory environments, among others. Furthermore, these specific circumstances and assumptions that condition the effectiveness of the enforcement theory are not fulfilled in the business scheme of collaborative platforms. Therefore, the enforcement pyramid may not be a suitable enforcement model to tackle this new market reality, at least from a theoretical standpoint.

Abstract: This thesis analyses the Colombian government’s decision-making process that involved international actors during the Havana peace process (2012-2016). The research highlights the influence of international actors in the government’s decisions that worked to end the armed conflict between the government and the FARC-EP in Colombia. In particular, this study raises the following research question: How, and in what way, was the Colombian government’s decision-making process influenced by international actors, especially the presence and actions of the UN, during the Havana peace process? The hypothesis of this research expects that the decision-making of the Colombian government during the Havana peace process had a key political condition of clearly defined involvement from international actors. It focuses on the Colombian Executive branch as the main actor and its relations with other national and international actors. To do so, the research references the theories of Foreign Policy Analysis, including the Governmental Politics Model and the Two-Level Game Model. This thesis provides an in-depth analysis of the Colombian government’s decision-making process that involved UN cooperation by applying an interpretative case study. The research methodology is built on data collection gathered by interviewing a number of high-profile individuals involved in the Havana peace process including members of the Colombian government, members of the former guerrilla FARC-EP, United Nations Officials, and national and international academics and advisors who were involved in the decision-making during the negotiations. The conclusion goes on to argue that the Colombian decision-making process implemented during the negotiations was designed precisely to effectively define the role of international support, which improved the likelihood of success of the final peace agreement. The cooperation of international actors, especially from the UN, built trust between the negotiating parties regarding the sustainability of the negotiations. In addition, the international cooperation promoted institutional and political conditions that were necessary to achieve the final peace agreement. Resumen: Esta tesis analiza el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano que incluyó la participación de actores internacionales en el proceso de paz de La Habana (2012-2016). La investigación destaca la influencia de los actores internacionales en las decisiones gubernamentales que facilitaron la terminación del conflicto armado entre el gobierno y las FARC-EP en Colombia. Particularmente, este estudio responde a la siguiente pregunta de investigación: ¿Cómo y de qué manera el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano fue influenciado por actores internacionales, especialmente la presencia y acción de la ONU durante el proceso de paz de La Habana? La hipótesis de esta investigación argumenta que el proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano durante el proceso de paz de La Habana requirió una condición política de tener claramente definidos los límites de la participación de actores internacionales. La investigación enfoca en la rama de poder Ejecutivo colombiano como actor principal y en sus relaciones con otros actores nacionales e internacionales. Para esto, la investigación se basa en teorías de Análisis de Política Exterior, incluyendo el Modelo de Política Gubernamental y el Modelo del Juego de Dos Niveles. Esta tesis proporciona un profundo análisis del proceso de toma de decisiones del gobierno colombiano que incorporó la cooperación de la ONU, aplicando un estudio de caso interpretativo. La metodología de investigación se fundamenta en la recolección de datos, entrevistando varios individuos de alto nivel involucrados en el proceso de paz colombiano, incluyendo miembros del Gobierno colombiano, miembros de la ex guerrilla de las FARC-EP, funcionarios de las Naciones Unidas, académicos y asesores nacionales e internacionales. La conclusión de la investigación argumenta entonces que el proceso de toma de decisiones colombiano implementado durante las negociaciones se organizó de manera precisa para definir efectivamente el papel del apoyo internacional, que aumentaría la probabilidad de éxito para un acuerdo final de paz. La cooperación de actores internacionales, especialmente de la ONU, creó confianza entre las partes negociadoras en favor de la sostenibilidad de las negociaciones. Adicionalmente, la cooperación internacional promovió condiciones institucionales y políticas que fueron necesarias para alcanzar el acuerdo final de paz.

Abtract: Small-scale farming systems in the Colombian Andes are vulnerable to threats that affect not only the food production and self-sufficiency of local communities, but that can affect the wellbeing of farmers and the environment. A holistic perspective of agriculture leads to understanding of the complexity of agroecosystems including its elements, processes, dynamics, interactions, synergies and trade-offs. This thesis examines the main characteristics, contexts and enabling environment for small-scale farming systems in Guachetá, Colombia, in order to identify and analyse the main agricultural problems in the municipality and possible solutions for them. Using the Tool for Agroecology Performance Evaluation (TAPE), the 10 elements of agroecology were evaluated on 7 farms along with the assessment of the performance of the systems using core performance criteria based on 5 key dimensions of sustainability. Furthermore, the analysis of qualitative data obtained from interviews with farmers and other actors, such as associations’representatives and academics in the fields of soils and agricultural science, facilitated the understanding of their perspectives in relation to the challenges that peasant farmers face. The results of this study show that the prevalence of dry climatic conditions and the variation on the typical rain patterns pose a major challenge for the current production system. In addition, the enabling environment, in regards to responsible governance and circular and solidarity economy, constitutes one of the major limitations. Currently, there are negligible possibilities for participation on the governance of the land and there is limited access to markets that offer fair conditions and proximity between consumers and producers. Also, the current agricultural practices reflect dependency on agrochemical inputs that, according to the analysis of the elements of agroecology, leads to low efficiency of the systems, limited agricultural biodiversity and low synergies within the agroecosystems. It is concluded that implementation of agroecological principles and practices that resemble natural ecological processes and that are characterized by joint action can aid in overcoming these issues leading to the improvement of the sustainability of food systems in Guachetá.

Abstract: Latin American countries are experiencing a significant increase in the reports of mistreatment that women experience while using the maternity healthcare services, a phenomenon acknowledged as “Obstetric Violence” (OV). The Latin American region is crucial for the recognition of OV, not only because the term OV was originated there, but also because of its particular response to the matter. The present Scoping Review aimed to identify and review the available evidence about the response of Latin American countries to OV. As a result, it was found, firstly, that the emergence of the concept of OV in Latin America demonstrated to be a transformative tool useful to raise awareness about the mistreatment women face when giving birth. This OV concept also positions this problematic as subset of gendered violence and as a type of structural violence, through which the need to address it systemically is highlighted. Secondly, the used categorization of OV appears to be the broadest and more inclusive typology, emphasizing that OV might stem from both intentional and unintentional actions of healthcare professionals, as well as from conditions within healthcare organizations. Moreover, the identified variables that influence the response to OV in Latin America were synthetized into a theoretical framework, which offers insight into how the problem has been addressed until now and subsequently, provides useful lessons for other countries seeking approaches to combat mistreatment of women during childbirth. Lastly, it was determined that, in order to address OV and allow the progression of public policies to become regionally available, a broadened view encompassing a human rights-based approach is necessary. This research allowed to conclude that OV is a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon whose solution requires a multidimensional and multidisciplinary approach. Furthermore, OV should be understood as more than a simple act of mistreatment, but rather be viewed as a set of socially constructed symbolic, and violent, meanings allowing different stakeholders to reframe the abuse and violence that women undergoing childbirth experience as natural, expected, and accepted, reinforcing specific gender dynamics not merely in maternity care but in society overall. Finally, the framework to tackle OV within the human rights approach developed by the author is expected to be advantageous for the development of further research, programs, and policies to prevent OV in Latin America and beyond.