The Passivhaus Standard is a construction concept based on affordably achieving the best indoor conditions with the lowest energy demand. If adopted, it could contribute to fulfil the lack of regulations in energy and comfort performance in Colombian dwellings that the current sustainability laws mandate. The Standard has been applied in warm regions mostly throughout the Mediterranean.This work intended to study its applicability for social housing in tropical climates, specifically four Colombian cities with different average energy demands and number of occupants per household and diverse climatic conditions. The work identified and described a reference building based on an average ‘good practice’ social housing project product of the current Building Regulations. It was modelled in the Passivhaus Planning Package (PHPP) to analyse its performance in the four cities. The results showed that the thermal performance of the building envelope is better than expected due to favourable climatic conditions in most of the cities, although it needs improvements. Even if primary energy demand is lower in the four cities than the maximum allowed by the Standard, it would be considerably high for dwellings without mechanical heating or cooling. The improved models showed that adopting passive strategies according to local climates reduced daily temperature swings and increased indoor comfort. Applying energy efficiency measures such as solar thermal DHW and more efficient fridges and lighting decreased primary energy demand significantly to less than a half of the maximum allowed. The Standard would be applicable in tropical climates even within the budget limitations for social housing in Colombia, although not exactly in the same way as in central Europe. Local circumstances and passive strategies must be taken into account to feasibly achieve the Passivhaus Standard in Colombian social housing.

Mean sea level rise exposes coasts to increasing risks. For the Caribbean Sea, the regional and local sea-level behaviour is not well known. This study has investigated the sea level behavior in the region at different frequencies during the last century, to provide updated, accurate and useful information to implement coastal adaptation responses to sea-level hazards. Time series from 28 tide-gauges, 18 years of altimetry and various atmospheric and oceanographic climatologies have been used. Several new results have been found. The small Caribbean tides have significant long-term modulations. The net effect of the low frequency modulation of the tidal signal can change the maximum tidal range up to 23.5%. The seasonal sea level cycle is characterized by large spatial and temporal variability. The amplitude of the coastal annual harmonic ranges from 2 cm to 9 cm, peaking between August and October. The amplitude of the semi-annual harmonic has maximum amplitude of 6 cm but it is not significant at all stations. The barometric effect dominates the coastal semi-annual cycle, but it is insignificant in all the other sea level frequencies at the tide-gauges. The seasonal sea level cycle from altimetry confirms the results obtained from the tide-gauges and allows the identification of some dominant sea level forcing parameters such as the Panama-Colombia gyre driven by the wind stress curl and the Caribbean Low Level Jet modulating the sea level in the northern coast of South America and linked to the local upwelling. The basin average mean sea level rise from altimetry is 1.7±1.3 mm yr-1 for the period 1993-2010. Wind forcing changes causes the trends in the southern part of the basin, modulating the sea level through changes in the ocean circulation. Significant spatial and decadal variability of the trends is found. Secular coastal sea-level trends range from 1.3±0.2 mm yr-1 in Magueyes, where the steric contribution dominates, to 5.3±0.3 mm yr-1 in Cartagena, where other contributors including local vertical land movements are significant. Temporal changes in the sea level extremes are significant but in line with mean sea-level trends at each tide gauge. With the annual mean sea level removed, extremes range between 36 cm and 79 cm, the later recorded in Port Spain and caused by the largest tidal signal. The largest nontidal residual is 76 cm found in Magueyes, forced by a hurricane induced storm surge, however larger surges can occur in the basin. The interannual sea level signal and nontidal extremes correlate with El Niño-Southern Oscillation at different time and spatial scales. No correlation with the North Atlantic Oscillation is found at any frequency. The largest sea flooding probability in the Caribbean coasts is around October, when the different sea level contributors’ maximums interact. These sea flooding events are going to became more frequent in the future due to the secular mean sea level rise affecting the basin.

Despite the large amount of research on aid effectiveness, there is still no consensus about the impact of international aid on economic growth, especially of the World Bank assistance. Empirical studies are characterised to be limited on its methodology and present diverse conclusions. Moreover, the World Bank’s contribution to economic growth in developing countries has been questioned to the point to rethink its role as a source for development. Colombia is not external to these contradictions; however, this situation arises from perception surveys and national figures. This research evaluates the impact of the World Bank’s lending on Colombia’s economic growth by estimating a model using as a reference the Solow’s model, extended to include a World Bank lending variable. It is expected a positive relationship between the World Bank disbursements and Colombia’s economic growth, which highlights the importance of updating the borrowing strategy with the World Bank in order to take the best advantage of this multilateral finance source.

This thesis considers the most current knowledge of the importance of investing in early childhood education and care (ECEC) programs with a focus on the economic benefits: higher rate of returns to education, higher productivity, lower crime rates, higher government savings and breaking up intergenerational poverty. Although the evidence suggests significant short-term effects in terms of educational benefits (e.g. lower repetition rates and special education), the empirical evidence for the economic benefits is still not as significant as it is desirable for their generalization. Therefore, it shows the need for more reliable information to construct a stronger argument leading governments to decide ipso facto increasing the educational expenditures in early childhood education programs.

Real Estate Industry is a strategic element in urban competitiveness, economic growth and development, as it facilitates the articulation between economic activities, local assets and flows of capital. Furthermore, even tough the perception is that it is a local business, with the globalization many of the largest developers and consumers of corporate real estate have become global (Bardhan & Kroll 2007). The foregoing has made the industry acquire a cross-border dynamic and makes the attraction of foreign investment into real estate development a key approach for improving the position of countries and cities in the global economic network. This work aims to explore the geographical structure and trends of the international Real Estate cluster, and then recognize the correlation of the Foreign Real Estate Investments –FREI– inward flows with competitiveness and real estate market factors of host countries and cities. The analysis shows that despite the globalization influence, FREI holds the concept of real estate as “local” business in a broader scale: 62% of the links happen within countries of the same region, evidencing that there are opportunities of complement with the surrounding economies. Likewise, the research demonstrates that the cluster involves primarily economies in second and third stage of development, exposing that the market is still reliant on low-risk assets in a stable environment and that there has not been established an active industry in developing countries. Additionally, the instability experienced over the last seven years in the sector is evidenced. The 2007 international financial crisis had a deep impact on Foreign Real Estate Investments, corroborating the interdependence between financial market and real estate.  This study demonstrates that location factors related to market size, labor market, financial market and connectivity are essential for attracting inward investments. The results of the model show that a variety of forces rule FREI, evidencing the need of having a comprehensive approach that surpasses the notion of real estate as property and involves other clusters. To conclude, the country and city analyses showed the diverse drivers for MNC at different territorial scales. Without neglecting the usual national purview of the policy framework for attracting FDI, it is important to acknowledge the relevance of local and urban scale in the broader picture of globalization. Beyond the macroeconomic and institutional determinants, the position of the urban nodes in the global networks matters for captivating FREI.

This investigation seeks to compare the legal frameworks developed in the 1990-2010 period in Colombia, Peru and Mexico to prevent and tackle informal artisanal/small scale mining. It does so by assessing the impact on the levels of informality of: (i) the incentives provided to miners to operate within legality; and (ii) the mechanisms devised to compensate such miners’ disadvantageous position vis-à-vis large scale mining companies. For such assessment a thorough examination of the countries’ mining codes is carried out. Concurrently, information extracted from semi-structured interviews with experts and triangulated with secondary sources is used to evaluate the codes’ impact on informality. The analysis supports the hypothesis that simple inexpensive mine title acquisition procedures, granting long lasting property rights, as well as guaranteeing technical and financial assistance, are key drivers of formalization. The impact of such incentives is, however, more complex: firstly, as the Mexican case illustrates, the absence of incentives combined with strong police persecution, can reduce informal mining by rendering it an unattractive activity with no prospective of future formalization. Secondly, the Colombian and Peruvian case exemplify how entry barriers also encourage miners to create associations which, in turn, are able to better access information, can comply with formal requirements more easily and can play an important role in influencing policy design. Furthermore, considering the incentives of large scale companies also proved crucial to reduce informality, given that a significant share of mining areas are already under concession. This means that the number of mine titles informal miners could potentially obtain is limited. Therefore, as the Colombian and Peruvian case exemplify, formalizing is to a large degree dependent on the willingness of these companies to voluntarily engage in associative contracts with informal miners. However, so far none of the observed countries has managed to prompt strong alliances between small and large scale miners to fruitfully implement such collaborative models. With regard to the compensation mechanisms, this study supports the hypothesis that granting political voice to small scale miners is of utmost importance to guarantee that differentiated costs, procedures and requirements are contemplated in the law. All in all, such policies have been innocuous and even counterproductive when not accompanied by measures that enhance access to information as well as local bureaucratic competences. In a context of scarce local bureaucratic resources, promissory formalization schemes generate a demand for mine titles that surpasses mining authorities’ capacity and, thereby, potentially incites more informality and social unrest. As observed in Peru, in such cases formalization processes can, paradoxically, induce higher levels of informal mining. In light of these findings, the study recommends the partner institution -Transparency International- to: (i) support the implementation of informational campaigns that explain the benefits of operating in formality and of doing so by means of associating; (ii) encourage policy dialogue spaces in order to prompt mutual monitoring and align the different stakeholders’ incentives; (iii) support capacity building programs targeting local mining authorities; (iv) support monitoring mechanisms in the mine title distribution and contracting processes.

La vivienda ha estado presente como un elemento revelador de las diferentes evoluciones sociales. Como laboratorio de experimentación, ya sea en términos técnicos, espaciales o sociales, podemos constatar que la arquitectura doméstica evoluciona para adaptarse a los modos de vida. Sin embargo, hoy en día, algunos investigadores han comprobado que los proyectos de vivienda se encuentran frente a la ausencia de innovación y no son adaptados a los modos de vida de los habitantes, salvo algunas excepciones. Aunque los actores que participan en la producción de la vivienda, los arquitectos y los habitantes parecen ser insensibles al conocimiento de la evolución del habitat, las mutaciones sociales que transforman la vida en la ciudad indican que la vivienda no puede quedarse rezagada. Esta tesis propone un análisis de la evolución en los estilos de vida, como el motor de la innovación arquitectónica y urbana en la vivienda colectiva. El análisis de los mecanismos de innovación en la vivienda colectiva está construido en dos partes. El objetivo de la primera parte, es el de presentar las diferentes mutaciones sociales que tienen una incidencia en el habitat y los “dispositivos espaciales” correspondientes. La propuesta de esta tesis, plantea una atención particular en la vivienda colectiva como tipología residencial ubicada en el corazón de los desafíos de la evolución de los modos de vida. La segunda parte está consagrada al estudio de dos casos en una de las operaciones urbanas más importantes en Paris: Paris Rive Gauche. El tratamiento del contexto de la operación, el papel de los actores, los factores comunes y diferentes de los dos proyectos que condicionaron el éxito respectivo son presentados. De esta manera, gracias al análisis de las realizaciones efectivas de los “dispositivos espaciales”, las hipótesis de las mutaciones sociales evocadas en la primera parte son comprobadas. En fin, un tercer punto propone el análisis del proceso de innovación: el management del proyecto, la adhesión de los actores a este proceso, el desarrollo de las operaciones, las fuentes de la innovación. Para que la innovación en la vivienda colectiva se acerque más a la realidad que a una utopia, la tesis propone la declaración de algunas pistas de reflexión.

La contratación pública es la actividad a través de la cual grandes cantidades de recursos públicos son utilizados por entidades de esa misma naturaleza para comprar y adquirir bienes y servicios del sector privado. Cuando a esta actividad se le incorpora el uso de tecnologías de la información y la comunicación se genera el concepto de contratación publica electrónica, en inglés e-government procurement que a su vez tiene como sigla eGP. El presente documento describe el proceso de elaboración de política pública y regulación en material de eGP en Colombia. Subraya que sólo hasta hoy en día el sistema de contratación publica colombiano logró incorporar los dos pilares que la CNUDMI ha propuesto como bases legales para el eGP: 1. Reglas sobre publicación de información sobre procesos de contratación y, 2. Reglas sobre Equivalencia Funcional de documentos electrónicos expedidos con ocasión de la actividad contractual. Por Equivalencia funcional se debe entender el principio según el cual los documentos electrónicos reciben la misma validez y fuerza vinculante que los documentos expedidos en sopote papel. Esta investigación enfatiza que antes del 8 de julio de 2005, la regulación de Contratación Publica electrónica carecía del pilar de equivalencia funcional y que tal circunstancia hacia nugatoria la posibilidad de usar Tecnologías de Información en las labores de la Administración Publica. El documento explica cómo gracias a la expedición de la Ley 962 de 2005, el pilar faltante de equivalencia funcional fue establecido, ya que esta norma incorporó este principio para el general funcionamiento de la administración y sus procedimientos administrativos. Antes de exponer sus conclusiones, el autor sugiere su propia interpretación de la Ley 962/2005. Las fuentes que han servido de insumos para la elaboración del documento han sido documentos oficiales del gobierno colombiano así como regulación local, igualmente, legislación y reportes de organizaciones internaciones, libros y artículos en la materia. Este documento llega a la conclusión de que con la Ley 962/2005 las interpretaciones que existían en materia de contratación pública electrónica deben cambiarse al punto de que se acepte el uso de TI para el efecto de generar eGP en Colombia.

This business plan proposes the creation and start-up of an employee supply company "Cleaning and Nannies Days". The Company will be a Colombian organization dedicated to the provision of child tare and household cleaning services, aimed at the population of the city of Bogotá in Usaquén, Chapinero and Suba, located in UPZ Santa Bárbara, Chicó Lago, Nice and La Alhambra, belonging to the socioeconomic strata 4, 5 and 6, which are a total of 75,015 potential homes, the company aims to achieve a market share of 20% over the next five years, with an average of 600 households per month.

Sexuality is defined by the O.M.S. As a central aspect of the human being that involves sex, identity, gender, sexual orientation, pleasure and reproduction; Today we can talk about this topic naturally and without taboos. Although this tum has allowed a social balance to be generated against women in this and other areas, there is still to be done and is demonstrated by recen! studies in which 54% of Colombian women with active sex life feel unsatisfied with their sex life, Which reflects a machismo that refuses to disappear and has guided the pursuit of sexual pleasure only towards men coupled with the ignorance that women have about their own body, their needs and rights The company Sex Shop & Support On Line; Is an initiative directed at adults, the target population is women, aged 30 to 50, belonging to strata 3 to 6, with vocational training, whose purchasing power can be oriented to satisfy this type of needs, which seek to develop Their sexuality through the purchase of products of a sexual type with adequate professional orientation.