Abstract: Political exclusion from public decision-making processes is one of the main causes of conflicts worldwide. The scholarship on the political inclusion of marginalised populations in a broad range of contexts and fields is growing rapidly. A specific subject that is receiving increased attention is participatory budgeting, a process that allows citizens to decide how to spend part of the local government budget. Still, the studies that examine the influence of offline and online participatory budgeting on political inclusion in peacebuilding contexts remain scarce. This thesis aims at contributing to the literature by analysing the influence of participatory budgeting on political inclusion in Medellín, Colombia’s second-biggest city. A case study approach was used to explore the participatory budgeting process in Medellín, from its launch as a city-wide policy in 2004 until its last regulatory change in 2017. Instead of testing pre-specified hypotheses, the thesis uses grounded theory to identify the factors and pathways that contribute to explain the influence of Medellín’s offline and online participatory budgeting on political inclusion in the view of its participants. The qualitative data collected and analysed suggests that participatory budgeting could boost political inclusion, while sometimes, even simultaneously, also reducing it. Using a grounded theory approach, this thesis develops a framework that explains how power dynamics and the deployment of the public budget through the participatory budget might foster or hinder political inclusion, depending on the design and implementation of the participatory budgeting process. The thesis also advances the literature by providing a thick description of political inclusion in Medellín’s participatory budgeting process, that characterises who are the actors that participate in the process and the distinctive dynamics of their interactions, along with how this participation may influence political inclusion.

Abstract: While there is strong evidence of the association between oil wealth and internal armed conflicts, the literature is less conclusive about the processes linking the two. Despite myriad mechanisms hypothesised by the literature, much uncertainty still exists about the causal pathways between oil and armed conflicts. How does oil revenues affect the occurrence and course of internal armed conflicts in contexts of political decentralisation? The main argument of the thesis is that the control of abundant oil revenues by subnational governments contributes to shape the strategies undertaken by armed groups at the local level. Subnational governments become a prize for armed groups, which pursue oil revenues through the political capture of local democracy. The armed groups interfere with democracy through a mix of violent and non-violent strategies. The thesis identifies political connections between oil revenues and armed conflicts and traces mechanism which I term the subnational-government-astarget. The pathway contributes to explain how oil revenues can undermine the workings of the subnational government through the dynamics of the armed conflict. A comparative case study approach was implemented to examine how oil revenues affected conflict and public management at the subnational level in Colombia. Drawing on data collected over five months of fieldwork in oilroyalty-abundant municipalities, the thesis also constitutes one of the first studies to examine the effects of oil revenues accrued by non-oil-producing municipalities in Colombia. The qualitative and quantitative data was triangulated to carry out a process-tracing analysis covering the period from the early 1960s to 2017.

Abstract: As we move deeper into the 21st century, reggaeton has expanded to become a major genre in US mainstream media culture. Because it is so versatile, it blends easily with other Latin American genres, as well as US pop music styles. It is a transnational and intercultural genre, adopting aspects from an amalgamation of styles, sounds, and aesthetics. What is the appeal of reggaeton music in the midst of the 21st century? Is it the rhythm or beat? Or the controversial lyrics, and the machismo (hypermasculinity) that they express? Both producers and consumers agree that Reggaeton is more than a music genre, and that its appeal is due not only to the characteristics outlined above, but to the fact that it represents a complete lifestyle. While Latin American producers are attempting to market a generic Latin American lifestyle, US. Latino consumers understand reggaeton as a lifestyle that is emblematic of both their heritage and their contemporary identity within the larger US culture. This thesis aims to understand how different groups of people within the US consume, understand and identify with reggaeton in order to begin to explain the growing phenomenon of Latin American popular music as a means of mass expression at a global level. Resumen: A medida que nos adentramos en el siglo 21, el reggaetón se ha instaurado como uno de los géneros más importantes en la cultura de los medios de comunicación en los Estados Unidos. Debido a su versatilidad, se mezcla fácilmente con otros géneros latinoamericanos, así como con estilos de música pop estadounidense. Es un género transnacional e intercultural que adopta aspectos dentro de una amalgama de estilos, sonidos y estéticas. ¿Cuál es el atractivo del reggaetón en pleno siglo XXI? ¿Será su ritmo o el sonido? ¿O serán las letras controversiales y el machísmo (hipermasculinidad) que expresan? Tanto los productores como los consumidores coinciden en que el reggaetón es mucho más que un género musical y que su atractivo se debe no solo a las características descritas anteriormente, sino al hecho de que representa un estilo de vida completo. Mientras que los productores latinoamericanos intentan comercializar un estilo de vida latinoamericano genérico, los consumidores latinos que crecieron en Estados Unidos entienden el reggaetón como un estilo de vida emblemático tanto de su herencia como de su identidad contemporánea dentro de la cultura estadounidense en general. Esta tesis busca entender cómo diferentes grupos de personas en Estados Unidos, consumidoras del reggaetón, se identifican con el género para así buscar la manera de empezar a explicar el fenómeno de la música pop (y popular) latinoamericana como medio de expresión masivo a nivel global.

Abstract: Undoubtedly climate change is already impacting and changing natural and human systems. However, climate change has just started to happen, and more severe and frequent impacts are expected to happen in the next decade. Therefore, climate change adaptation is an immediate and imminent need for future development options. Among the various approaches to adapting to climate change, Ecosystem-based Adaptation measures are seen as a no-regret or low-regret option. But like any other anthropogenic intervention, adaptation measures such as EbA can have detrimental impacts and side effects that adversely affect human and natural systems. This unintended process is called maladaptation. Since recent evidence about maladaptation has been studied, EbA practitioners are increasingly concerned about avoiding maladaptation risks in adaptation projects. Yet, there is not enough literature that explores maladaptation in EbA measures. Responding to this gap, the purpose of the present thesis was to propose a prospective participatory tool for identifying, diagnosing, and avoiding maladaptation risks in EbA measures to support practitioners in designing more holistic, resilient, and sustainable adaptation projects. As a result, the maladaptation concept was initially analyzed using the existing related literature to develop a conceptual framework consisting of drivers, mechanisms, dimensions, attributes, forms, outputs, and outcomes of maladaptation. At the same time, a harmonized and integrated definition of maladaptation was developed based on its current understanding. Following that framework, a tool for analyzing maladaptation risks was drafted, validated with various experts, and tested in a pilot EbA measure to conserve, sustainably use, and restore mangroves in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Through the case study, not only the proposed tool was tested for analyzing maladaptation risks, but also the conceptual framework was used to understand maladaptation in an EbA measure better. By doing that, this master’s thesis expects to contribute to the emerging climate change adaptation discipline while providing means to practitioners to improve the design of future EbA measures using the maladaptation lens.

Abstract: The Nesjavellir geothermal power plant is the second largest in Iceland, with a district heating capacity of 300 MW and electrical generation of 120 MW. Reinjection of the excess water from the Nesjavellir geothermal plant, derived from separated water from high enthalpy wells and condensed steam, has affected the temperature of the shallow groundwater in the area. These discharges of warm water present a risk to cold water production for the power plant as well as the ecosystem in Lake Thingvellir, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This study investigates the flow path of reinjected liquid and temperature of impacted groundwater for a better management of the discharge and injection in the area. A numerical model of the Nesjavellir warm wastewater reinjection zone was developed using the TOUGH2non-isothermal flow simulator program and incorporates a 3D geological model developed with Leapfrog Geothermal modeling software. The model was calibrated against underground water temperature data measured between 1998 - 2018 from several monitoring stations located to the north of the power plant. Hydrological parameters such as porosity and permeability were further calibrated against data from a tracer test carried out in tharea between 2018-2019. Both models use the Multiple Interactive Continuum (MINC) method, which is a generalization of the dualporosity method. Compared to the single-porosity model, the MINC method better replicates the fast and strong recovery of tracers found in the monitoring stations. The temperature model showed acceptable results that match the temperature field. While the tracer model closely matches the overall tracer return in some wells, the model underestimates tracer returns in others. However, the model reproduces the overall trend, with similar tracer arrival and concentration peaks for monitoring stations located over main structures acting as permeable channels. Two future scenarios were simulated for a period of 20 years, one in which injection continues and another in which the injection is completely stopped. The numerical model in this study improves understanding of the connections between injection wells and monitoring stations, along with better characterization of the fracture matrix interface and the porosity of postglacial lava flows. Therefore, it can be useful in providing a basis for sustainable management of the geothermal resource and the surrounding environment.

Abstract: This research was conducted in the Global South, based on three cases from the Colombian Andean Mountains. The cases illustrate mistrust, poverty and inequality and other social disparities that institutional entrepreneurs have addressed by building path-transformative alternatives. In this frame, and despite the low and sometimes the total lack of state support, policy programs emerged to foster inclusive innovation (InIn) processes in those communities. However, little is known about the role of Institutional Entrepreneurs in building path-transformative alternatives in the Global South and about their role in inclusive innovation initiatives supported by national entities. This research answer to the question: what is the role of Institutional Entrepreneurs in Inclusive Innovation Initiatives supported by National Entities in local communities? This study is supported by three literature branches: inclusive innovation, path dependence and creation, and institutional entrepreneurship. As part of this cruise, it was found that in inclusive innovation initiatives supported by national entities (ie Colciencias) in local communities, institutional entrepreneurs work as channelisers. This role was crucial for two reasons: i. It prevents the initiatives from hampering or undermining the path-transformative process; ii. It contributes to exploiting the positive effects of the initiatives. Thus, this channeliser role of institutional entrepreneurs aligns the inclusive innovation initiatives supported by Colciencias, with the pathtransformative processes led by them in their communities. In performing this role, institutional entrepreneurs channelled the initiatives to strengthen their vision of change and simultaneously cope with pressures that resist change. Three critical activities support this role: i. A strategic analysis; ii. bargaining; and iii. surveillance. Resumen: Esta investigación fue adelantada en el Sur Global a partir de tres casos en las montañas andinas colombianas. Estos ilustran condiciones de desconfianza, pobreza, desigualdad y otras disparidades sociales que emprendedores institucionales tienen que enfrentar para construir caminos alternativos de transformación. En este marco, y a pesar del poco o a veces ausente apoyo estatal, aparecen programas que impulsan procesos de innovación inclusiva (InIn) en esas comunidades. Sin embargo, poco se conoce del papel de los emprendedores institucionales en la construcción de caminos alternativos de transformación en el Sur Global, así como tampoco de su papel en el desarrollo de iniciativas de innovación inclusiva apoyadas por entidades del orden nacional. Esta investigación responde a la pregunta ¿Cuál es el papel de los emprendedores institucionales en iniciativas de innovación inclusiva apoyadas por entidades del orden nacional en comunidades locales? Este estudio se apoya en tres ramas de la literatura: innovación inclusiva, dependencia y creación de trayectorias, y emprendimiento institucional. Como parte de esta investigación se encontró que en las iniciativas de innovación inclusiva apoyadas por entidades del orden nacional (ie Colciencias/Minciencias) en comunidades locales, los emprendedores institucionales fungen como canalizadores. Este papel fue crucial por dos razones: i. permite evitar que las iniciativas obstaculicen o afecten los procesos de transformación de caminos; ii. contribuye a explotar los efectos positivos de las iniciativas. Así, el papel de canalizador de los emprendedores institucionales permite alinear las iniciativas de innovación inclusiva apoyadas por Colciencias, con los procesos de transformación de caminos liderados por ellos en sus comunidades. Se observó que los emprendedores institucionales canalizan las iniciativas de innovación inclusiva para fortalecer su visión de cambio y afrontar las presiones de resistencia al cambio. Este papel de canalizadores implica tres actividades: i. Análisis estratégico; ii. negociación; y iii. supervisión.

Abstract: The continuous development and upgrading of computational methods has allowed for great advances in scientific research in fields like astrophysics. The capacity of this methods to accurately reproduce processes and environments that can not be directly observed makes them specially useful in areas like planet formation, as the stages of planetary growth can be rarely observed and directly studied. From dust to planetesimals, protoplanetary embryos and terrestrial planets, planetary growth is still a field of open research, specially as many processes like the formation of planetesimals and the origin of water in terrestrial planets remains unclear. Specially for the origin of water a number of hypothesis have been postulated including both endogenous and exogenous sources, such that the most plausible source of the water accreted by the inner planets of the Solar System corresponds to bodies originated in the outer asteroid belt. The delivery of water is most likely carried out by massive and decisive collisions of similar sized bodies during the late-stage accretion phase of planetary growth. In this master thesis, the focus is placed on studying in detail this type of collisions, utilizing a post-collisional processing python code using the N-body integrator REBOUND, which determines a wide array of parameters for the resulting fragments, as final mass and number of collisions, while at the same time performing a gravitational analysis of the system in order to obtain gravitationally bound aggregates, their orbits and their respective orbital parameters. For a scenario consisting of four collisional events, initially performed by Burger et al. (2020), we obtain unique gravitational systems as a direct consequence of the different impact parameters presented by each collision of the scenario, where the impact angle has the greatest incidence on the outcome of the collision, such that scenarios with large grazing angles result in systems that are completely gravitationally bound, while scenarios with smaller straight-on angles result in systems with numerous fragments in independent trajectories. Additionally, from the analysis of the post-collisional system we obtain a protoplanetary embryo with a growth path consistent with a viable candidate for a terrestrial planet in the Solar System, presenting a final stable co-planar circular orbit located in the habitable zone.

Abstract: Colombian schools' mental health approaches to secondary students have not been researched deeply in the country. Therefore, there is a need to understand how schools are currently promoting students' mental health to identify strengths and obstacles to improving the provision of mental health approaches in Colombian schools. The present study explored Colombian secondary school teachers' perceptions of schools' approaches toward students' mental health. Seven semi-structured in-depth interviews with teachers from different Colombian secondary schools, mainly from Bogotá, were carried out. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. The study found that schools have different strategies to promote students' mental health, including mental health-related classes in the curriculum, activities done by the psychology department, the Parent Training Programme, extracurricular activities and targeting common adolescent issues. However, there are various obstacles that schools need to address to improve mental health promotion. Barriers include the lack of correct implementation of combing mental health skills within the subjects, lack of continuity of mental health activities, lack of reflection and significant learning in the strategies, not talking directly about mental health, and engaging better parents and school staff in students' mental health promotion. Moreover, the study considers practical implications for Colombian schools and the Colombian government to improve mental health approaches in schools and contribute to better mental health in Colombian adolescents. Finally, future studies are discussed to contribute to deep research on Colombian secondary students' mental health. Resumen: Los enfoques en salud mental de los colegios de Colombia para los estudiantes de bachillerato no han sido investigados profundamente en el país. Por lo tanto, existe la necesidad de entender cómo los colegios están actualmente promoviendo la salud mental de los estudiantes para identificar fortalezas y obstáculos y así mejorar la provisión de los enfoques de salud mental en los colegios de Colombia. El presente estudio exploró las percepciones de los profesores de bachillerato sobre los enfoques de los colegios hacia la salud mental de los estudiantes. Se realizaron siete entrevistas semiestructuradas a docentes de diferentes colegios de Colombia, principalmente de Bogotá, y se utilizó el análisis temático para analizar los datos. El estudio encontró que los colegios tienen diferentes estrategias para promover la salud mental de los estudiantes, incluyendo clases relacionadas con la salud mental en el plan de estudios, actividades realizadas por el departamento de psicología, la escuela de padres, actividades extracurriculares y abordaje de problemáticas comunes de la adolescencia. Sin embargo, se encontraron varios obstáculos que los colegios deben abordar para mejorar la promoción de salud mental. Los obstáculos incluyen la falta de implementación correcta de habilidades de salud mental dentro de las asignaturas, falta de continuidad de las actividades de salud mental, falta de reflexión y aprendizaje significativo en las actividades, no hablar directamente sobre la salud mental, y falta de fomentación en la participación de padres y colaboradores del colegio en la promoción de salud mental de los estudiantes. Además, el estudio considera implicaciones prácticas para los colegios de Colombia y el gobierno colombiano para mejorar los enfoques de salud mental en los colegios y contribuir a una mejor salud mental en los adolescentes colombianos. Finalmente, se discuten futuros estudios que contribuyan a una investigación profunda sobre la educación secundaria colombiana.

Abstract: This paper describes the treatment of lexis in three Spanish as a foreign language (SFL) textbooks recently produced in Colombia. To achieve this aim, the typology of lexical activities proposed in three units of each textbook has been analysed according to the most current theories on vocabulary teaching and by means of grids designed for this purpose. The evolution of the treatment of vocabulary in textbooks produced at different times was also analysed. Among the most notable conclusions, it has been found that the teaching strategies most commonly used in the textbooks are based on the task-based approach and the key to the evolution of the material produced in Colombia has been the design of activities prioritising the students and their needs. Indeed, the most recent textbooks have changed pedagogical and presentational aspects and can be said to apply current SFL teaching guidelines, such as the use of audiovisual material as a basis for the development of the textbook. The relevance of this study is reflected in the need to improve the quality of textbooks in Colombia and their promotion. Resumen: En este trabajo se realiza una descripción del tratamiento del léxico en tres manuales de español como lengua extranjera (ELE) recientemente producidos en Colombia. Para llegar a este fin, se ha analizado la tipología de actividades de léxico propuestas en tres unidades de cada manual conforme a las teorías más actuales acerca de la enseñanza de vocabulario y por medio de unas parrillas diseñadas para tal fin. Asimismo, se ha analizado la evolución del tratamiento de vocabulario en manuales producidos en distintos momentos. Entre las conclusiones destacables, se ha encontrado que las estrategias de enseñanza más utilizadas en los manuales se apoyan en el enfoque basado en tareas y la clave para la evolución del material producido en Colombia ha sido el diseño de actividades priorizando al alumnado y sus necesidades. Efectivamente los manuales más recientes han cambiado aspectos pedagógicos y de presentación y se podría decir que aplican las directrices actuales de enseñanza de ELE, como la utilización de material audiovisual como base para el desarrollo del manual. La pertinencia de este estudio se ve reflejada en la necesidad de mejorar la calidad de los manuales en Colombia y su difusión.

Abstract: Microfluidics is a relatively recent technology which involves the manipulation of fluids geometrically constrained to small scales. These devices have been gaining attention, especially due to the broad range of potential applications, being one of them microreactors. In this project, the optimum flow conditions for generation droplets under merging regime were established, identifying most important variables, which influence the regime desired in this type of application. Capillary and Reynolds numbers were found as the parameters which determine the region in which the system is performed. These numbers are subject to the interfacial tension, viscosity, and flowrate which are the most sensitive variables that modify all the regimes. Likewise, it was identified that the geometry of the microdevice influences on the system. Therefore, several microdevices were designed with different geometries where the viscosity, the flowrate, and the width ratio were varied at fixed interfacial tension, to assess their impact. It was found that by increasing the viscosity and flowrate, the shear forces inside the microdevices increase proportionally, giving way to undesired laminar regimes and bigger droplets. The width ratio has an indirect impact on the regime obtained, by increasing the amount of water entering the main channel. Phase diagrams illustrate the optimal conditions for merging regime, where the most optimal values found to have this regime and smallest droplet were by using width ratio of 1, and flowrates of 3.5ml/h and 0.8ml/h in the continuous phase and dispersed phases, respectively, using silicone oil of 5cSt. The results found in this study can contribute to the development of further research, including the formation of nanoparticles to carry out chemical reactions in a micro scale. Resumen: La microfluídica es una tecnología relativamente reciente que implica la manipulación de fluidos restringidos geométricamente a pequeñas escalas. Estos dispositivos han ido ganando atención, especialmente debido a la amplia gama de aplicaciones potenciales, siendo una de ellas los microrreactores. En este proyecto se establecieron las condiciones óptimas de flujo para la generación de gotas en régimen de fusión, identificando las variables más importantes, que influyen en el régimen deseado en este tipo de aplicación. Los números de capilaridad y de Reynolds se encontraron como los parámetros que determinan la región en la que se desarrolla el sistema. Estos números están sujetos a la tensión interfacial, la viscosidad y el caudal, que son las variables más sensibles que modifican todos los regímenes. Asimismo, se identificó que la geometría del microdispositivo influye en el sistema. Por lo tanto, se diseñaron varios microdispositivos con diferentes geometrías en los que la viscosidad, la velocidad de flujo y la relación de anchura se variaron a una tensión interfacial fija, para evaluar su impacto. Se comprobó que al aumentar la viscosidad y la velocidad de flujo, las fuerzas de cizallamiento en el interior de los microdispositivos aumentan proporcionalmente, dando lugar a regímenes laminares no deseados y a gotas más grandes. La relación de anchura tiene un impacto indirecto en el régimen obtenido, al aumentar la cantidad de agua que entra en el canal principal. Los diagramas de fase ilustran las condiciones óptimas para el régimen de fusión, donde los valores más óptimos encontrados para tener este régimen y la gota más pequeña fueron utilizandos a una la relación de anchura de 1, y caudales de 3,5ml/h y 0,8ml/h en la fase continua y en la fase dispersa, respectivamente, utilizando aceite de silicona de 5cSt. Los resultados encontrados en este estudio pueden contribuir al desarrollo de nuevas investigaciones, incluyendo la formación de nanopartículas para llevar a cabo reacciones químicas a microescala.