Abstract: The thesis critically deals with Urban Greening, a phenomenon that transformed contemporary urban areas in the post-industrial landscape. After a deep exploration of literature and field fieldwork, this research defines such an issue as “an accumulative mechanism of translation of the perception and relationship between society and urban nature”. By inquiring greening mechanisms in the cases of Rotterdam and Torino, the work proposes a design experiment to challenge the current ways of production of green bodies, by fostering new relationships in the urban sphere. The first part of the thesis defines urban greening through literature, contemporary definitions, and categorizations. Aiming for a redefinition of the concept by means of the deconstruction into its main components; society, nature, time, and interactions. The research directly moves towards a better understanding of what greening and nature can mean, by confronting the ideas of some significant authors, such as Matthew Gandy, Phillippe Descola, and Lucilla Barchetta, among others. The exploration understands the relevance of greening as a term that has gained momentum in the past few decades, with the decline of the post-industrial landscape and the increasing degradation processes of the Anthropocene. However, the general approach, wishes to go beyond the contemporary notions of greening, as one of the promises of the so-called “sustainable city”, and explore the constructions and narratives that have constituted its meaning throughout time. The second part of the inquiry takes two contemporary cities as case studies: Rotterdam and Torino. By analyzing their greening history and urban expansion, to later take a look at the modern-day panorama in terms of administration, governance, and policies around green infrastructures. Moreover, confronting this Greening agenda with the projects that will shape the future of Rotterdam and Torino, assessing their reach, coherence, and implementation in terms of the Sustainable City. As a result of the case studies exploration, the thesis draws a series of considerations that suggest new types of relationships around urban greening. The last part of the study wishes to challenge current ways of urban greening, by experimenting with a form of planning that drifts apart from the objectification of green elements and hopefully tries to integrate spontaneity in urban relationships.

Abstract: I document differences in inflation rates across gender in the UK between 2001 and 2021. Using data from the interview and diary components of the Living Costs and Food Survey, for the period spanning 2001-2021, I compute gender specific inflation rates for male and female households. I find that average annual inflation was higher for male than for female households (17 and 15 basis points higher for single and cohabitating male households than single and cohabitating female households, respectively). This difference persists after controlling for other sociodemographic characteristics. Differences are mainly explained by male households spending a significantly larger part of their consumption budget in relatively higher-inflation product categories, such as transport, restaurants and hotels, and alcohol and tobacco. Deflation in clothing and footwear, a category on which female households spent around twice as much as male households, further increased the gap. I also document a significant amount of heterogeneity in inflation within gender. Resumen: Documento las diferencias en las tasas de inflación por género en el Reino Unido entre 2001 y 2021. Utilizando datos de los componentes de entrevista y diario de la Living Costs and Food Survey del Reino Unido, para el periodo comprendido entre 2001 y 2021, calculo las tasas de inflación específicas por género para los hogares masculinos y femeninos. La inflación media anual fue mayor en los hogares masculinos que en los femeninos (17 y 15 puntos básicos, respectivamente). Esta diferencia persiste después de controlar otras características sociodemográficas. Las diferencias se explican principalmente por el hecho de que los hogares masculinos gastan una parte significativamente mayor de su presupuesto de consumo en categorías de productos que experimentaron una mayor inflación, como transporte, restaurantes y hoteles y alcohol y tabaco. La deflación en ropa y calzado, una categoría en la que las mujeres en la que los hogares femeninos gastan aproximadamente el doble que los masculinos.

Natural Resource Revenues: An opportunity to grow? Estimating the effect of royalties on Colombian departments Abstract: Do royalties from the natural resource extraction contribute to economic growth in the Colombian context? To answer this question, this study examines the allocation and use of royalties in the 32 Colombian departments between 2005 and 2019, period that spans two different governance schemes. Using panel data analysis, it finds that from the allocation perspective, there are indications of the natural resource curse in producing departments. In terms of the returns of the investments, the results highlight issues related to the efficiency and quality of public investment in the main sectors, despite the significant contribution of the 2011 royalties’ reform to address revenues mismanagement and equity issues. These results point to imbalances in the royalties’ policy, thus contributing to inform the current debate on energy transition and future policy reforms. Resumen: ¿Contribuyen las regalías provenientes de la extracción de recursos naturales al crecimiento económico en el contexto colombiano? Para responder a esta pregunta, este estudio examina la asignación y el uso de las regalías en los 32 departamentos colombianos entre 2005 y 2019, periodo que abarca dos esquemas de gobernanza diferentes. Utilizando análisis de datos de panel, encuentra que desde la perspectiva de la asignación, hay indicios de la maldición de los recursos naturales en los departamentos productores. En términos de los retornos de las inversiones, los resultados destacan problemas relacionados con la eficiencia y la calidad de la inversión pública en los principales sectores, a pesar de la importante contribución de la reforma de las regalías de 2011 para abordar la mala gestión de los ingresos y los problemas de equidad regional. Estos resultados apuntan a desequilibrios en la política de regalías, contribuyendo así a informar el debate actual sobre la transición energética y las futuras reformas de política.

Abstract: In this thesis, I test if the effect of state intervention on economic growth and inequality depends on the level of institutional quality a country presents. I use three different proxies to measure the degree of state intervention in the economy, then I specify a model which includes an interaction term between rule of law and one of the proxies of state intervention. The model is tested in a cross-panel dataset for at most 58 countries in 7 three-year periods, from 1998 to 2018. I find evidence for a non-linear relationship between income per capita and state intervention when the latter is proxied as market openness, varying on the level of rule of law. Contrary to expectations, countries with better institutional quality do not benefit the most from freer markets. As for inequality, I find non-robust evidence of a crossover interaction between public employment and rule of law, yet this result is not economically meaningful. Resumen: En esta tesis, compruebo si el efecto de la intervención estatal sobre el crecimiento económico y la desigualdad depende del nivel de calidad institucional que presenta un país. Utilizo tres indicadores distintos para medir el grado de intervención estatal en la economía y, a continuación, especifico un modelo que incluye un término de interacción entre la variable de Estado de Derecho (rule of law) y uno de los indicadores de intervención estatal. El modelo se testea en una base de datos de panel con un máximo de 58 países en 7 períodos de tres años, de 1998 a 2018. Encuentro pruebas de una relación no lineal entre la renta per cápita y la intervención estatal cuando esta última se aproxima como apertura del mercado, variando en función del nivel de Estado de Derecho (rule of law). Contrario a lo esperado, los países con mejor calidad institucional no son los que más se benefician de mercados más libres. En cuanto a la desigualdad, encuentro pruebas no robustas de una interacción cruzada entre el empleo en el sector público y el Estado de Derecho, aunque este resultado no es económicamente significativo.

Abstract: This thesis aims to discuss and analyze the influence of women's work on the social construction of the Tarapacá territory, located in the Amazon region of Colombia. Tarapacá was established as a Colombian district as a result of the territorial conflict between Colombia and Peru over the Amazonian border. The period studied extends from the 1930s, when the border conflict occurred, to the year 2022. The research is based on historical documentary sources, interviews, and academic works that highlight the ways in which women understand, produce, and transform the environment. The theoretical framework falls within the field of environmental history with a focus on gender. The study of the relationships between gender and the environment throughout the history of this Amazonian territory seeks to document the legacy of women and understand how it manifests in the present. This work analyzes the relationship of women with the territory from the perspective of socio-spatial formation, considering the historical influence of their work in the construction of social space. Among the results, it is highlighted that the colonialist view tends to treat nature as passive and subordinate, resulting in the oppression of both nature and individuals considered ""non-agents"" and ""non-subjects,"" especially indigenous women. An approach aligned with the perspective of Well-Living (in Spanish, Buen Vivir) of the Andean-Amazonian peoples challenges this view and recognizes the agency and subjectivity of all living beings. For Amazonian women, their connection with nature is used as a strategy to position themselves in the political sphere, sustain life, and protect their territories. This symbolic and practical relationship with the environmental surroundings is fundamental for cultural preservation and resistance against exploitation and territorial dispossession. Resumen: Esta tesis tiene como objetivo discutir y analizar la influencia del trabajo de las mujeres en la construcción social del territorio de Tarapacá, ubicado en la región amazónica de Colombia. Tarapacá fue establecido como un distrito colombiano como resultado del conflicto territorial entre Colombia y Perú por la frontera amazónica. El período estudiado abarca desde la década de 1930, cuando ocurrió el conflicto fronterizo, hasta el año 2022. La investigación se basa en fuentes documentales históricas, entrevistas y trabajos académicos que destacan las formas en que las mujeres conocen, producen y transforman el ambiente. El marco teórico se enmarca en el campo de la historia ambiental con enfoque de género. El estudio de las relaciones entre género y ambiente a lo largo de la historia de este territorio amazónico busca documentar el legado de las mujeres y comprender cómo se manifiesta en el presente. El trabajo analiza la relación de las mujeres con el territorio desde la perspectiva de la formación socioespacial, considerando la influencia histórica de sus trabajos en la construcción del espacio social. Entre los resultados, se destaca que la visión colonialista tiende a tratar la naturaleza como pasiva y subordinada, lo que ha resultado en la opresión tanto de la naturaleza como de las personas consideradas ""no agentes"" y ""no sujetos"", especialmente las mujeres indígenas. Un enfoque cercano a la perspectiva del Buen Vivir de los pueblos andinoamazónicos desafía esta visión y reconoce la agencia y subjetividad de todos los seres vivos. Para las mujeres amazónicas, su vínculo con la naturaleza es usado como una estrategia para posicionarse en el ámbito político, sustentar la vida y proteger sus territorios. Esta relación simbólica y práctica con el entorno ambiental es fundamental para la preservación cultural y la resistencia contra la explotación y la desposesión territorial.

Abstract: Background: Multidrug resistant TB cases have been on the rise, risking advances in TB prevalence and control. Early diagnosis and targeted initial treatment are paramount for effective management and control of spreading of MDR/XDR-TB cases Methods: 161 isolates from patients with L-J culture confirmed TB in Lima, Peru, were tested with MODS+ assay, the diagnostic test and Sensititre, the reference standard. Analysis of growth patterns of bacteria in both methods were used to determine susceptibility/resistance of each isolate to three first line and six second line anti-TB agents, using two different critical concentrations (CC) for each antibiotic. Results: Agreement between susceptibility profiles and operational characteristics of diagnostic test yielded high performance and strong agreement with rifampicin 1μg/ml (agreement percent 90%, Kappa value 0.80) and amikacin 1μg/ml (agreement percent 96%, Kappa value 0.81), moderate for isoniazid 0.4μg/ml (agreement percent 89.4%, Kappa value 0.78), moxifloxacin at both CC’s 0.5μg/ml and 0.25μg/ml (agreement percent 93 and kappa values 0.73 for both), levofloxacin 2μg/ml (agreement 93%, kappa 0.69) and amikacin 2μg/ml (agreement 96%, Kappa 0.81), minimal for levofloxacin at CC 1.5μg/ml (agreement 90%, kappa 0.57) kanamycin at both CC’s 10μg/ml and 5μg/ml (agreement 87%, kappa 0.52) and ethionamide 5μg/ml (agreement 89%, kappa 0.46), weak for PAS 10μg/ml (agreement percent 93.9, kappa value 0.29), and none for ethambutol (Kappa value 0.02 for CC 10μg/ml, 0.07 for CC 5μg/ml). Conclusions: MODS+ assay is a cost-effective option for the diagnosis of TB and MDR/XDRTB, specially, in low resource settings with high TB incidence. Further operational research using lower CC’s, results read on different days and placed in settings with high and low TB and MDR/XDRTB burden could offer better sensitivities and wider applicability of results.

Abstract: The central aim of this research is to scrutinize the liability regime associated with environmental harm resulting from mining activities in the Area. The thesis endeavors to identify and analyze the gaps in the existing legal framework, particularly under UNCLOS. It questions whether the current standards, which are predominantly based on negligence, are sufficient for safeguarding the ecological integrity of this vital global common. The research is driven by the pressing need for an effective legal regime that aligns with the CHM principle and adequately protects the marine environment from the risks of deep-sea mining. Resumen: El objetivo central de esta investigación es examinar el régimen de responsabilidad asociado con el daño ambiental resultante de las actividades mineras en la Zona. La tesis se esfuerza por identificar y analizar las lagunas en el marco legal existente, especialmente bajo la Convención de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar (UNCLOS). Se cuestiona si las normas actuales, que se basan predominantemente en la negligencia, son suficientes para salvaguardar la integridad ecológica de este vital bien común global. La investigación se impulsa por la apremiante necesidad de un régimen legal efectivo que se alinee con el principio del Patrimonio Común de la Humanidad (CHM) y proteja adecuadamente el medio ambiente marino de los riesgos de la minería en el lecho marino profundo.

Abstract: The following document is a proposal to enhance and improve the way in which the Colombian craft sector exposes and sells its products, through a unified platform in which stories, craftsmen, creative professionals, and products converge in a dynamic and simplified way. Here they may show the modern, fresh, high aesthetic and professional face of the Colombian craft sector, always having as a horizon the new global dynamics of digitalization and virtualization of everyday life. In this process, the Association Artesanías de Colombia is taken as the main reference, being the main channel that groups and manages the national artisan activity, the platform is formulated as the future tool for the management of the artisan sector. Facing problems that the artisans manifest, punctually the lack of visibility and participation in new markets, the physical limitations that they have to exhibit and sell their products, followed by the low participation in exhibitions and fairs. In order to face these inconveniences, which overwhelm Colombian artisans on a daily basis, the document begins by reviewing the artisan sector as such, identifying its principles and values. This is followed by the evaluation of initiatives and programs that have been and are still in place, focusing on the digital development of the sector, and reviewing interesting national and international case studies of collaborations between the artisan sector and the creative industries, highlighting the importance of these joint ventures for obtaining results that combine contemporaneity with tradition. Finally, the thesis closes with a proposal for the design of a system that simplifies the essential components of the craft sector, enhancing the relationship between craftsman and designer, giving special emphasis to the way in which products are displayed digitally using 3d scanner methods, thus raising the level and homogeneity of the platform. Link to the website prototype: https://www.figma.com/proto/zpEVy5JmhPjY7lfvWqjFMB/Artesanias?node-id=1-6&scaling=minzoom&page-id=0%3A1&starting-point-node-id=1%3A6

Abstract: At the present time, climate change and antimicrobial resistance are considered as the most critical threats, affecting human, animal, plant, and environmental health. Although these terms may initially appear different, they are interconnected and share similarities in their causes (human interventions and natural cycles), health, and societal consequences. Climate change is associated through direct and indirect pathways with an increase in infectious diseases. Nonetheless, the association between global warming and antimicrobial resistance requires a comprehensive summary of evidence exploring it. Methods: A literature review was conducted to identify and describe the association between climate change and the rapid emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. The search was conducted in the following databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, Epistemonikos, and Google Scholar. The search period was restricted to articles published from January 2010 to June 2021. Additionally, a snowballing approach was conducted to identify any additional papers. Data extraction included study location, weather factors, environmental elements, antibiotics, and bacteria analysed, as well as the results. Results: 29 articles were included (ten literature or systematic reviews, eight experimental, six ecological, four observational, and one quasi-experimental). In terms of location, all the studies were conducted in countries between 35° and 75° north latitude. The results suggested some evidence of the effects of climate change (alterations in temperature, precipitation, and humidity) on the emergence and rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance in different environments (water, soil, cryosphere, and air). Temperature was described as a main effect of climate change that had effects on antibiotic resistance (increasing bacteria growth, altering metabolism, inducing crossprotection, and facilitating horizontal gene transfer between bacteria). Additionally, results also described the association between altered rain patterns and humidity and antimicrobial resistance, through the runoff of antibiotic molecules or the transport of antibiotic resistance mechanisms to other areas. Conclusions: This literature review has underscored the association between climate change and antimicrobial resistance. According to the results shown in the selected studies, the alterations in weather factors resulting from climate change have varying effects on the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance. However, further research is imperative to decipher the complex interactions between other environmental processes, pollutants, patterns of antibiotic consumption, wastewater, animal migration, and regions below the latitudes covered in this literature review.

Abstract: In a country where direct, structural, and cultural violence dates back to the Spanish conquest, Feminist pedagogies in historical memory as a tool for transformative peacebuilding in Colombia is a small-scale qualitative study aiming to increase the understanding of how gender is reflected in Colombia's collective and historical memory and how feminist pedagogies can be used for transformative peacebuilding. Thus, the following question is answered: What role does gender play in Colombia's historical and collective memory of the conflict? This study uses transformative peacebuilding and empowerment as the main theoretical frameworks to address the research question. On the other hand, since it adopts an interpretive approach, it applies three methodologies for the data collection to triangulate the information: document analysis, a scoping review of the literature, and five semi-structured interviews. After a detailed and thorough analysis, my dissertation highlights the value of looking at history from a gender perspective to better understand what happened after centuries of violence and discrimination. This finding correlates to developing new tools that allow direct dialogue with victims without going through institutional filters. It also demonstrates the importance of the pedagogy of memory and the appropriation of feminist pedagogies as tools for social and cultural transformation. Finally, it states that the current status quo on empowerment in the country affects the process of transformative peacebuilding, as it limits the actions employed by citizens to construct historical and collective memory.