This article deals with the process of adopting international drug treaties in confor¬mity with the Colombian legal system. International law establishes that substances that are considered illicit, including coca leaf, have legal uses exclusively for medical or scientific purposes. Consequently, the chewing of coca leaf by indigenous com¬munities in the Andean States is mandated to disappear. The Colombian state has signed and ratified these international treaties, and has an obligation to respect its international commitments. Being a pluricultural nation with two formal and equal legal systems (indigenous and ordinary jurisdiction) and with the increased partici¬pation of native communities in Colombian politics, the task of implementing this obligation gives rise to a legal conundrum. The Colombian state faces two mutually exclusive obligations: One to its international commitments and another to respect the rights of indigenous communities.

Abstract: Companies are increasingly faced with demands for access to information which until quite recently was considered to fall under business (confidential) secrets and out of bounds for public access. In the environmental sector, however, the Aarhus convention (international, regional law) was one of the first to kick-start discussion on bringing privately held information under public scrutiny, in particular where these companies can be considered to be fulfilling ‘public’ duties, such as water and energy providers. At the EU level, the directives on access to environmental information contain provisions on privately held data. Moreover, the overall transparency Directives and Regulations are being used increasingly to force private companies to hand over data with respect to lobbying activities, scientific reports, risk assessment etc., where this information is held by EU Institutions or by Member States authorities. The perceived change towards a more transparent governance model on environmental and energy matters raises several legal issues that need to be promptly addressed. The paper examines the current provisions that support access to environmental information held by the private sector from an international and European perspective in order to identify tensions between the right of the people to know and other legitimate rights such as business confidentiality and intellectual property rights and the available tools to address them. Resumen: Las corporaciones han sido objeto de crecientes solicitudes de acceso a información que hasta tiempos recientes estaba considerada información confidencial de las empresas y fuera del alcance para el público. Sin embargo, en el sector ambiental, la Convención de Aarhus (derecho internacional/regional) fue una de las primeras en abrir el debate sobre el acceso público a la información en manos del sector privado, especialmente cuando estas entidades desarrollan funciones públicas como el suministro de agua y energía. A nivel de la Unión Europea, las Directivas sobre acceso a la información ambiental contienen disposiciones sobre información del sector privado, e incluso, las directivas y regulaciones generales sobre transparencia están siendo utilizadas cada vez más para obligar a las entidades privadas a entregar información sobre actividades de lobby, reportes científicos, análisis de riesgos etc. cuando esta información está en manos de las instituciones de la UE o autoridades de los Estados Parte. El cambio que se percibe hacia un modelo de gobernabilidad más transparente en materia de ambiente y energía presenta varias cuestiones legales que deben ser tratadas con prontitud. El artículo examina las disposiciones actuales en las que se basa el derecho de acceso a la información ambiental en manos del sector privado desde una perspectiva de derecho internacional y europeo con el fin de identificar posibles tensiones entre el derecho a la información y otros intereses legítimos como la confidencialidad industrial y los derechos de la propiedad intelectual y las herramientas disponibles para resolverlos.

Abstract: Concerns have been raised that declining energy return on energy investment (EROI) from fossil fuels, and low levels of EROI for alternative energy sources, could constrain the ability of national economies to continue to deliver economic growth and improvements in social wellbeing while undertaking a low-carbon transition. However, in order to test these concerns on a national scale, there is a conceptual and methodological gap in relation to calculating a national-level EROI and analysing its policy implications. We address this by developing a novel application of an Input-Output methodology to calculate a national-level indirect energy investment, one of the components needed for calculating a national-level EROI. This is a mixed physical and monetary approach using Multi-Regional Input-Output data and an energy extension. We discuss some conceptual and methodological issues relating to defining EROI for a national economy, and describe in detail the methodology and data requirements for the approach. We obtain initial results for the UK for the period 1997–2012, which show that the country’s EROI has been declining since the beginning of the 21st Century. We discuss the policy relevance of measuring national-level EROI and propose avenues for future research. Resumen: La tasa de retorno energética (TRE) de combustibles fósiles ha estado disminuyendo, al mismo tiempo que la TRE de fuentes de energía renovables permanece baja. Esto es preocupante, pues podría limitar la habilidad de las economías nacionales de continuar proveyendo crecimiento económico y mejoras en bienestar social, al mismo tiempo de pasan por una transición energética. Sin embargo, para poder corroborar estas preocupaciones, existe una brecha conceptual y metodológica en cuanto a la computación de la TRE a nivel nacional y sus implicaciones para la política energética. Abordamos esto a través del desarrollo de una nueva aplicación de la metodología Insumo-Producto para calcular inversión energética indirecta, uno de los componentes necesarios para calcular la TRE a nivel nacional. Esta es una aproximación mixta (física y monetaria), utilizando datos Insumo-Producto Multi-Regionales y una extensión energética. Discutimos algunos de los problemas conceptuales y metodológicos alrededor de una definición de la TRE para una economía nacional, y describimos en detalle la metodología y los requerimientos de datos para esta aproximación. Obtenemos resultados iniciales para el Reino Unido durante el período 1997-2012, los cuales muestran que la TRE del país ha estado disminuyendo desde comienzos del siglo XXI. Discutimos las implicaciones de política y proponemos avenidas futuras de investigación.

Abstract: In England 11% of households are considered to be fuel poor, however, this figure reached 12.4% in Yorkshire and the Humber in 2015. Nonetheless, improvements in energy efficiency are a powerful tool for reducing energy bills, allowing households to keep a higher residual income, reducing the proportion of people living in fuel poverty. This paper shows the results of the assessment of thermal insulation of a community building in Sheffield along with the simulation and economic analysis of a set of viable improvements to increase energy efficiency. Thermal imaging along with energy analysis software were the main tools used. Results show that energy savings could reach 72% by improving insulation in external walls and roofing. However, there is a funding challenge as investments required are significantly high and the payback periods are over 5 years. On the other hand, measurements and analysis in the building assessed shown that basic changes in behaviour related to the operation of the heating system could reduce energy consumption by up to 49%. This finding motivated occupants to take action in order to see reduction in energy bills immediately with no investment required. Additionally, results shown the impacts of overheating the building; a 1°C increase could boost energy requirements by up to 15%. All these findings show the potential benefits of improving energy efficiency to reduce fuel poverty. Resumen: En Inglaterra 11% de los hogares se considera que viven en pobreza energética, sin embargo, esta cifra alcanzó 12.4% en Yorkshire and the Humber en 2015. Las Mejoras en eficiencia energética son una herramiento ponderosa para reducer las facturas de energía, permitiendo a los hogares conservar un mayor ingreso residual, reduciendo la proporción de gente viviendo en pobreza energética. Este artículo muestra los resultados de la evaluación del aislamiento térmico de un edificio comunitario en Sheffield junto con la simulación y análisis económico de un conjunto de mejoras viables para incrementar la eficiencia energética. Las principals herramientas usadas fueron imágenes térmicas y software de analisis energético. Los resultados mostraron que se puede alcanzar ahorros del 72% mejorando el aislamiento en las paredes externas y el techo. Sin embargo, la financiación es un reto ya que se require inversions significativamente altas y los periodos de recuperación de la inversion superan los 5 años. Por otra parte, las mediciones y analisis realizados en el edificio evaluado mostraron sencillos cambios cambios en el comportamiento, en relación con la operación del Sistema de calefacción pueden reducer el consume de energía hasta en un 49%. Este hallazgo motive a los ocupantes del edificio a tomar acciones con el fin obtener inmediatament una reducción en las facturas de energía sin ninguna inversion. Adicionalmente, los resultados mostraron los impactos de sobrecalentar el edificio; un increment de 1°C podría elevar consume de energía hasta en un 15%. Todos estos hallazgos muestran los potentials beneficios de mejorar la eficiencia energética para reducir la pobreza energética.

The paper discusses an RCC dam project where an exposed geomembrane system was installed in 2002 and has been successfully performing for now 13 years. The RCC dam, Miel I, is located in Colombia with 188 m high, and the dam is used for power production. The RCC mix has a cement content of 85 to 160 kg/m3. To meet contractual schedule, the original design of an upstream face made of slip formed reinforced concrete was changed to a Carpi drained exposed PVC geocomposite system, placed on a 0.4 m thick zone of RCC material enriched with cement grout and vibrated. Placement of the geocomposite system in horizontal stages allowed starting dam impoundment while RCC placement was still ongoing at higher elevation. The geocomposite system was completed in 2002, before complementary concrete works were finished. ISAGEN, the owner of the dam, constantly monitors the dam and the geocomposite system. The measured leakage has never surpassed the historical values, or overcome the maximum allowed drainage design values. After 11 years of good performance, in 2013 ISAGEN decided to have a comprehensive monitoring of the general conditions and weathering behaviour of the geocomposite system. Objectives of the investigation were to assess the reason of small cuts that had been detected and repaired (in total 15 in 11 years on a 31,000 square meters surface), to assess the conditions of the PVC geocomposite, ascertaining at which extent its characteristics had changed over service, and to evaluate if the weathering behaviour was in accordance with the expected durability. Inspection at the upstream face and in the drainage galleries was followed by sampling and testing of the exposed geocomposites in the laboratory, to compare the physical and chemical properties of the aged geocomposite sample collected at the dam with those of the same geocomposite as manufactured. Evaluation of test results, based also on most recent research on geomembrane weathering mechanisms, completed the investigation. Results confirmed that the behaviour of the PVC geocomposite is extremely good and fully in line with expectations. The performance of the dam in 2015, after 13 years of service, keeps being extremely satisfactory. The paper will describe the geocomposite system installed at the dam, and then discuss all steps of the investigation, and detail the test results and the conclusions drawn.

Abstract: Its high-risked operations, risk-taking mentality and multiple obstacles, namely technical capabilities, geological uncertainty, political risks, financial strengths, and complex regulations, globally define the Oil and Gas industry. The industry constantly uses Joint Operating Agreements to allocate the aforementioned risks between the parties, thus spreading costs and risks as well as benefits. The principle of sharing costs and risks is the cornerstone of these agreements and therefore all petroleum operations conduct jointly, but as every general rule, there is an exception for it. When pass mark is not reached within the Operating Committee a particular project may be undertaken at sole risk, taking into account that all consequences derived from sole risk operations are to be borne by the sole riskers, including environmental consequences. Having said that, this paper addresses the fundamentals, benefits and pitfalls of the sole risk operations in the United Kingdom, but it specially measures in practice if the sole riskers are financially capable to respond timely and sufficiently to any consequence. To achieve the foregoing, the next chapters will develop the fundamentals of sole risk operations, main features of the United Kingdom JOA model and the conclusions, anticipating to the readers that it might be risky to allow any member to a JOA to conduct sole risk activities. Resumen: Las operaciones de alto riesgo, su mentalidad de asumir riesgos y múltiples obstáculos, a saber, capacidades técnicas, incertidumbre geológica, riesgos políticos, fortalezas financieras y regulaciones complejas, definen globalmente la industria del petróleo y el gas. La industria utiliza constantemente Acuerdos de Operación Conjunta para asignar los riesgos antes mencionados entre las partes, extendiendo así los costos y los riesgos, así como los beneficios. El principio de compartir costos y riesgos es la piedra angular de estos acuerdos y, por lo tanto, todas las operaciones petroleras se llevan a cabo conjuntamente, pero como toda regla general, existe una excepción. Cuando no se alcanza la marca de aprobación dentro del Comité Operativo, un proyecto particular puede emprenderse a riesgo exclusivo, teniendo en cuenta que todas las consecuencias derivadas de las operaciones de riesgo exclusivo deben ser asumidas por los tomadores del riesgo, incluidas las consecuencias ambientales. Dicho esto, este documento aborda los fundamentos, beneficios y dificultades de las operaciones de riesgo exclusivo en el Reino Unido, pero especialmente mide en la práctica si los risk-takers son financieramente capaces de responder oportuna y suficientemente a cualquier consecuencia. Para lograr lo anterior, los próximos capítulos desarrollarán los fundamentos de las operaciones de riesgo exclusivo, las principales características del modelo JOA del Reino Unido y las conclusiones, anticipándose a los lectores que podría ser arriesgado permitir que cualquier miembro de un JOA lleve a cabo actividades de riesgo exclusivo.

Abstract: The existence of an undeniable nexus between the mining industry and development of the countries is fundamental to comprehend the balance required to offset environmental concerns while developing. To mitigate the environmental impact of development, instruments such as carbon bonds and cap-and-trade system are in place. Their performance and outcome may be debatable on a country-specific basis, but some benefits must be acknowledged. To do so, a historical approach is conducted to analyse their effectiveness in a global context and their basics are explained, preceded by stating that mining is regarded an act of development and that concerns on development-environmental trade-offs are governmental responsibilities. In light of previous considerations some conclusions are made, anticipating that the examined mechanisms have proven success but should have broader scopes and more effective implementation, if global achievements are expected. Resumen: La existencia de un nexo innegable entre la industria minera y el desarrollo de los países es fundamental para comprender el balance que se requiere para compensar las preocupaciones ambientales mientras se desarrollan. Para mitigar el impacto ambiental del desarrollo, instrumentos como los bonos de carbón y el sistema cap-and-trade tienen lugar. Su desempeño y resultado puede ser debatible según el país en particular, pero se deben reconocer algunos beneficios. Para ello, se realiza un enfoque histórico para analizar su efectividad en un contexto global y se explican sus conceptos básicos, precedidos por la afirmación de que la minería se considera un acto de desarrollo y que las preocupaciones sobre el desarrollo y las compensaciones ambientales son responsabilidades gubernamentales. A la luz de consideraciones previas, se hacen algunas conclusiones, anticipando que los mecanismos examinados han tenido éxito, pero deberían tener alcances más amplios y una implementación más efectiva, si se esperan logros globales.

The end of a thermal inflation era, driven by the rolling of a flaton fi eld coupled to the curvaton, cause a huge increase in the curvaton mass and decay rate while the curvaton is still frozen. It is shown that, if this increase is enough for the curvaton to immediately decay, low scale in inflation with Hubble parameter.

The main objective of this paper is to prove that spatial connectivity can be an effective spatial indicator for monitoring and evaluating the recovery process after the event of an earthquake. It integrates variables such as distance, travel time and quality of public transport service. We hypothesize that there is a relationship between the connectivity to the central business districts in cities, and the satisfaction with the locations of new settlements assigned to the homeless population during a recovery process. If this hypothesis holds true, then the satisfaction with new settlements will be correlated with the inhabitants’ preference to either stay, or to search for a new site. This will then support the evaluation of the success of a recovery process. To prove this relationship we investigated the twelve months recovery process in L’Aquila in Italy. Spatial data sets were used and analyzed using GIS. Fieldwork data and interviews were conducted in order to investigate the satisfaction of persons living in newly established places outside of the city. We compared the strength of the desire of the interviewees to move away, against the travel distance and travel time to the city center. The statistical analysis reveals that the preference to search for another place was significantly correlated with the distance between new settlements and the city center of L’Aquila. To a lesser degree it was correlated with the travel time. The regression indicated that the distance between the new settlements and the inner city strongly influences the preference to either stay or to move.

The Author aims to show the results presented by the Clean development Mechanism (CDM) created under the Kyoto Protocol as tool to promote a flexible scheme to meet the commitments. After thirteen years of CDM operation, results exposed a discouraging panorama as GHG emissions keep increasing. The situation got complex as it has been some barriers that prevented CDM optimal operation. With a new second commitment period entering into force, CDM scheme provides an uncertain outlook so far. The first period results are shown along with the characteristics of the second one and the future CDM market trends. It is also reviewed the CDM background, following by the analysis of the periods’ situation and possible actions that can be taken in order to enhance CDM as emissions reduction strategy, finished by conclusions from the author.