Riassunto: In termini generali, questo articolo intende presentare l’insieme del marxismo-leninismo, di cui le dottrine politiche fanno parte integrante, accanto a un cenno storico sull’origine di queste idee e sul loro insegnamento in Unione Sovietica durante la guerra fredda. Rileviamo, inoltre, i tratti caratteristici di questo tipo de pensiero. È quindi un percorso storico e sistematico in un importante periodo nella storia del ventesimo secolo. Resumen: En términos generales, este artículo busca presentar el conjunto de las doctrinas políticas del marxismo leninismo tal como se desarrollaron en la Europa comunista durante el periodo de la guerra fría. Parte importante de esta presentación es la forma como tales doctrinas fueron enseñadas en la Unión Soviética y sus características más importantes. Es una presentación a la vez sistemática e histórica de un periodo importante de la historia política del siglo XX. Abstract: Overall, this paper seeks to outline the set of political doctrines of Marxism-Leninism as was developed in communist Europe during the Cold War. An important part of this presentation is how such doctrines were taught in the Soviet Union and its most important features. It is a presentation both systematic and historical of an important period of political history of the twentieth century. Resumo: De um modo geral, este artigo pretende apresentar o conjunto das doutrinas políticas do marxismo-leninismo do jeito que se desenvolveram na Europa comunista durante o período da guerra fria. Parte importante desta apresentação é a forma como tais doutrinas foram ensinadas na União Soviética e suas características mais importantes. É uma apresentação sistemática e histórica de um período importante da história política do século XX.

Documento en el que se consignan las opiniones de Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera, respecto al tratado firmado entre Nueva Granada y Estados Unidos, según el cual se permite la entrada de ciudadanos de este último país al istmo de Panamá. A lo largo del impreso, que conserva la ortografía de la época, Mosquera señala que debe buscarse una salida pacífica a la presencia de estadounidenses en el país, con miras a conseguir la paz y el progreso de la República.

Extracto del "Boletín de estadística de Cundinamarca" (Vol. 1, n. 3), publicado en Bogotá, en el que se muestran de forma detallada, a partir de cuadros, las principales causas de mortalidad en Bogotá durante 1913, así como el número de nacimientos que hubo durante ese año en la ciudad.

Documento en el que se resumen y compilan varios telegramas y publicacione relativos a la ferrería y hulleras de Pacho, en Cundinamarca. A lo largo del documento, se justifica la necesidad del contrato celebrado entre el Gobierno y Edmond Brochon para la explotación de la ferrería, se realiza una aproximación al perfil profesional de Brochon, las condiciones geográficas de la región que se va a explotar y, finalmente, se compara el caso de explotación férrea en Colombia con los de Bolivia, Chile y Brasil.

This essay aims to analyse the First Chechen War (1994-1996) as a fundamental conflict that boosted the resentments between the parties. Although it is not an extensive compilation, it aims to summarise the main elements around the onset of the war by collecting the main ideas published by the academic community. First, it will describe the origins of the conflict, including elements and situations that affected the dynamics of the war. Second, it will analyse why this case should be considered as a civil war by discussing its characteristics. Third, it will summarise some relevant theories of how civil wars start. Fourth, it will analyse the First Chechen War in light of the civil war onset theories provided. Finally, insights will be offered for future discussion on the topic.

hina’s air pollution has reached a critical state, and is characterized by heavy coal smoke and a wide presence of ozone and particulate matter (PM2.5). From 2011, through the 12th five year plan, the prevention and control of air pollution entered a new ‘transition stage’ guided by the principles of sustainability and energy conservation, and also intensified by pressure from the society. This article is divided into two parts: first, it introduces the most important changes, problems and advances during this transition, including a brief explanation of the policy mechanisms. Second, it illustrates how research in the area of Science and Technology Studies (STS) can bring about new ways to understand the problems of the knowledge-policy and public engagement of air pollution in China.

"Urban forests are an integral part of urban ecosystems and quality of city life. The urban forest in Canada is highly valued, underscoring the importance of devising schemes for sustainable urban forest management. During the last decade, many urban forest management plans (UFMPs) have been prepared. This study analyses 14 Canadian UFMPs published in this period. We found that most of the UFMPs are dominated by an approach that relies on single-tree maintenance, canopy-cover enhancement, tree-diversity enhancement, and planting-oriented educational programmes. These activities dominate the operational features of the plans, while other ecological, social, and economic considerations lack specificity and operational clarity. A suite of best management practices based on UFMP documentation is included here."

Living in groups is usually driven by predation and competition for resources. River dolphins do not have natural predators but inhabit dynamic systems with predictable seasonal shifts. These ecological features may provide some insight into the forces driving group formation and help us to answer questions such as why river dolphins have some of the smallest group sizes of cetaceans, and why group sizes vary with time and place.We analyzed observations of group size for Inia and Sotalia over a 9 yr period. In the Amazon, largest group sizes occurred in main rivers and lakes, particularly during the low water season when resources are concentrated; smaller group sizes occurred in constricted waters (channels, tributaries, and confluences) that receive an influx of blackwaters that are poor in nutrients and sediments. In the Orinoco, the largest group sizes occurred during the transitional water season when the aquatic productivity increases. The largest group size of Inia occurred in the Orinoco location that contains the influx of two highly productive whitewater rivers. Flood pulses govern productivity and major biological factors of these river basins. Any threats to flood pulses will likely have an effect on the functionality of these ecosystems and the species living in them.

Abstract: Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction is associated with increased oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Current evidence suggests a protective role of thioredoxin-1 (Trx1) in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. However, it is unknown yet a putative role of Trx1 in sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction, in which oxidative stress is an underlying cause. Transgenic male mice with Trx1 cardiac-specific overexpression (Trx1-Tg) and its wild-type control (wt) were subjected to cecal ligation and puncture or sham surgery. After 6, 18, and 24 h, cardiac contractility, antioxidant enzymes, protein oxidation, and mitochondrial function were evaluated. Trx1 overexpression improved the average life expectancy (Trx1-Tg: 36, wt: 28 h; p=0.0204). Sepsis induced a decrease in left ventricular developed pressure in both groups, while the contractile reserve, estimated as the response to ?-adrenergic stimulus, was higher in Trx1-Tg in relation to wt, after 6 h of the procedure. Trx1 overexpression attenuated complex I inhibition, protein carbonylation, and loss of membrane potential, and preserved MnSOD activity at 24 h. Ultrastructural alterations in mitochondrial cristae were accompanied by reduced Optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) fusion protein, and activation of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) (fission protein) in wt mice at 24 h, suggesting mitochondrial fusion/fission imbalance. PGC-1? gene expression showed a 2.5-fold increase in Trx1-Tg at 24 h, suggesting mitocondrial biogenesis induction. Autophagy, demonstrated by electron microscopy and increased LC3-II/LC3-I ratio, was observed earlier in Trx1-Tg. In conclusion, Trx1 overexpression extends antioxidant protection, attenuates mitochondrial damage, and activates mitochondrial turnover (biogenesis and mitophagy), preserves contractile reserve and prolongs survival during sepsis. Resumen: La disfunción miocárdica inducida por sepsis está asociada con estrés oxidativo y disfuncion mitocontrial. La evidencia actual sugiere un rol protector de thiorredoxina 1 en la patogénesis de la enfermedad cardiovascular. Sin embargo, es desconocido su papel en la disfunción miocárdica inducida por sepsis, en el cual el estrés oxidativo es una causa subyacente. Ratones transgénicos machos con sobreexpresión específica en músculo cardiaco (Trx1-Tg) y su control (wt) fueron sujetos a ligadura punción cecal o técnica de laparotomía sin ligadura y punción (sham). Después de 6, 18,y 24h, contractilidad cardiaca, enzimas antioxidantes, oxidación de proteínas, y función mitocondrial fueron evaluados. Sobre-expresión de Trx1 mejoró la esperanza de vida media (Trx1-Tg: 36, wt: 28 h; p = 0.0204). Sepsis indujo una reducción en la presión desarrollada del ventrículo izquierdo en ambos grupos, mientras la reserva contráctil, estimada como la respuesta al estímulo β-adrenérgico, fue superior en Trx1-Tg en relación a wt, posterior a 6 h del procedimiento. La sobre-expresión de Trx1 atenuó la inhibición del complejo I, carbonilación de proteínas, y pérdida de potencial de membrana, y preservó la actividad de la superóxido dismutasa-Mn a las 24 h. Alteraciones ultra estructurales en las crestas mitocondriales fueron acompañadas por una reducción en OPA1 y activación de Drp1 en ratones wt a las 24 h, sugiriendo un imbalance fusión/fisión mitocondrial. La expresión de PGC-1-α incrementó 2.5 veces en Trx1-Tg a las 24 h, sugiriendo inducción de biogénesis mitocondrial. Autofagia, demostrada por microscopia electrónica e incremento en la razón LC3-II/LC3-I, fue observado más tempranamente en Trx1-Tg. En conclusión, la sobre-expresión de Trx1 extiende protección antioxidante, atenúa el daño mitocondrial y activa el recambio mitocondrial (mitofagia y biogénesis), preserva la reserva contráctil y prolonga la sobrevida durante la sepsis.

Climate adaptation is being embraced by many municipalities worldwide. An element of this is the planting and protection of urban trees. However, the fact that climate change will also have an impact on urban trees has been largely overlooked. We argue that climate vulnerability assessments are necessary for addressing climate adaptation in urban forests and contribute to successful climate adaptation in cities. We review and integrate the literature on climate vulnerability and urban forests to explore how the general notion of urban forest vulnerability to climate change can be developed into an operational framework for undertaking a vulnerability assessment. The framework characterizes climate exposure, impact, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, as well as nonclimatic drivers and factors, in urban forests. The most important themes in this discussion include urban tree species selection and diversity, naturalization, resource access, social awareness and engagement, budget and economic valuation, liability issues, and governance structures. Climate change vulnerability assessments help us understand how and why urban forests are vulnerable to climate change, identify future areas for research, and determine what adaptation measures could be included in urban forest management. These assessments help bring climate change to the forefront of the decision-making process and contribute to successful urban adaptation to climate change.